12010

Vol.1/2010/8

 

Introduction

Physical Education is assuming a greater role in the social system of the nations all over the world. Its importance has been widely accepted as it inculcates responsibility and leadership qualities among youth in a democratic society. Comparatively Health & Physical Education is new academic discipline in Pakistan and Sport psychology has emerged as one of the important courses being taught in academics at colleges and universities. Richard Cox (2002) cited in Encyclopedia of Psychology has rightly viewed sport and exercise as a vehicle for human enrichment. It is argued that one can investigate various trends of Physical Education that contribute their resources to the maximum in helping an individual to achieve a fuller growth and desired performance in physical activity. It also explores dominant factors that play a vital role in the development of attitudes of the youth that help immensely in the promotion of national integration (Carron, A. 1980)

In view of the changing trends in respect of modernizing physical education, this paper has been prepared as an attempt to divert the attention of the society towards female sport participation, as it exists in different colleges of the capital cities of Pakistan and the provinces such as, Islamabad (Pakistan), Karachi (Sindh), Lahore (Punjab), Quetta (Balouchistan) and Peshawar (NWFP) to give Physical Education a professional meaning for the integration and total development of girl's personality. It refers to categories of people who share an economic position in society based on a combination of their income, wealth, education, occupation, and social connections.

Considering the importance of sports Values and attitudes, the social class differentiation based on the sports participation has been examined

through their family background information, collected from sports participants regarding their socio-economic-status such as parent occupation, family structures (Joint nucleus) hobbies, personal interest, parent's education, residential area and maternal attitude towards sports. Earlier, no attempt has been made to study such a problem in Pakistan.

In most of the tradition-bound societies of South Asia, number of widely held beliefs, though scientifically inaccurate, might compel parents discouraging their daughters to participate in sports. However, the fact remains that societal dogmas make the task of coaches quite difficult in Pakistan, largely because of some widely held beliefs include that strenuous physical activity will harm the delicate female reproductive system; women athletes are genetically and physically freak (Coakley J 2001); region doesn't permit a Muslim girl to participate in competitive sports; female participating in competitive sports eventually loses their femininity, and girls should be oriented towards the traditional role of becoming housewives (7»'di, S. 1975). The main concentration of this research work is to is to explore the ideal personality traits of college girl-students (Item-level analysis); identify social class belongingness of girls sport participants in the colleges of the capital cities of Pakistan.

Methodology:

In analyzing the sports culture of Pakistan mainly relating to social class differences in sport participation among female college students of five capitals cities of the Pakistan and the provinces were selected where girls participation in sports competitions at various Boards and Universities is comparatively higher than other cities. The research was conducted by personal visits and interviews to assess socio-cultural, conditions of these cities and through various questionnaires administered on the sample of 500 girls of different colleges of these five capital cities, selected randomly and administered among middle and working class family students to collect viable data largely through Personal Information Questionnaire (PIQ), and Adjective Check List (ACL) and also receiving reasonably good guidance from available literature of Euro-American physical educationalists related to this work ever conducted in Pakistan. The libraries of the Universities of Karachi, Punjab, Sindh and the seminar library of my own Centre for Health & Physical Education at University of Sindh, Jamshoro were very useful in the enrichment of the resources concerning this study.

SAMPLE

The sample of 500 college girls sport participants were selected randomly from the following Five capital cities belonging to middle class and working class families as under:

 

Table-1

City wise classification of the samples

Capital Cities of provinces	Middle Class N=250	Working Class N=250	Total N-500
Karachi	60	60	120
Lahore	70	70	140
Quetta	40	40	80
Peshawar	40	40	80
Islamabad	40	40	80
Total	250	250	500

RESULTS OF THE STUDY

Note:- Personal Information Questionnaire (PIQ) was administered to college girl students, selected randomly from capital cities understudy to measure the background characteristics of sport participants such as age, education, socio-economic status, and place of birth.

 

Table 2

Characteristics of Sport participants of Karachi City

Background Characteristics	Middle Class (N=60)		Working Class (N=60)
1. Education	f		f
First Year	10	16.6	30	50
Second Year	17	28.3	20	33.3
B.A / B.Sc	33	55	10	16.6
2. Place of Birth
Rural	5	8.3	02	3.3
Urban	55	91.6	58	96.6
3. Participation from academic class:
Vm_Metric	20	33.3	32	53.3
Intermediate	16	@ 26.6	20	33.3
B.A / B.Sc	24	40	8	13.3
4. Encouragement from family / parents
Yes	28	46.6	45	75
No	32	53.3	15	25

 

Four important characteristics according to the requirement of research were selected to examine the education wise participation in sports, area wise participations, involvement in sports from particular academic class and encouragement of parents.

The percentage indicates that the parents belonging to working class encourage their daughters more as compared to middle class. The ratio of the participation of middle class at B.A / B.Sc level is higher than working class; it is observed that due to financial weakness they could not send their daughters for higher education. The scores of middle class participation in sports from rural area are higher than working class. This shows the awareness of sports activities of the middle class families belonging to rural areas, whereas the scores of working class families belong to urban areas showed their interest in sports higher than middle class participants.

Note: 50% or More Endorsements of the Middle and Working class female college students on adjective check list (ACL) has been obtained to analyze the results of all capital cities of Pakistan under study:-

 

(Table-3) Karachi City

Sr.	Adjective	Middle Class N=60		Working Class N=60
		F	%	f	%
1	Adaptable	45	75	59	98.3
2	Affectionate	40	66.6	58	96.7
3	Ambitious	58	96.7	40	66.6
4	Attractive	54	90	45	75.3
5	Autocratic	56	93.3	45	75
6	Active	20	33.3	38	63.3
7	Capable	50	83.3	40	66.6
8	Civilized	58	96.7	45	75
9	Confident	44	73.3	57	95
10	Co-operative	54	90.3	56	93.3
11	Demanding	50	83.3	35	58.3
12	Determined	47	78.3	59	98.3
13	Energetic	45	75	55	91.7
14	Enthusiastic	52	86.7	40	66.6
15	Foresighted	30	50	55	91.7
16	Forgiving	52	86.6	55	91.7
17	Generous	47	78.3	45	75
18	Helpful	50	83.3	57	95
19	Hopeful	45	75	57	95
20	Intelligent	57	95	40	66.6
21	Initiative	45	75	57	95
22	Mature	56	93.3	59	9P.3
23	Persistent	58	96.7	50	83.3
24	Practical	51	85	56	93.3
25	Planful	38	63.3	50	83.3
26	responsible	56	93.3	59	98.3
27	Self confident	58	96.7	45	75
28	Straight forward	45	75.3	54	90
29	Strong	30	50	56	93.3
30	Un-excitable	31	51.7	45	75

 

Out of 30 adjectives, the perception of the respondents of both groups are more or less simi­lar on given adjectives, but in some adjectives we find clear difference of opinion such as ac­tive, confident, determined, foresighted, and strong. The scores of working class are higher than middle class sport participants. Where as middle class focus more on autocratic, ambitious, intelligent, and responsible. This analysis pro­vide meaningful basis for comparison with both classes, which will be helpful for coaches to train the athletes considering their psychological per­ceptions

Table - 4

Background Characteristics of Sport participants of Lahore City

Background Characteristics	Middle Class		Working Class
	N=70		N=70
1   Education	f	%	f	%
First Year	25	35.7	33	47.1
Second Year	30	42.8	30	42.8
B.A/B.Sc	15	21.4	07	IO
2   Place of Birth
Rural	10	14.2	4	5.7
Urban	60	85.7	64	91.4
3   Participation from academic class:-
VIII-Matric	30     42.8		40	57.1
Intermediate	25     35.7		27	38.5
B.A/B.Sc	15    21.43		3	4.2
4   Encouragement from family / parents
Yes	50	71.4	65	92.8
No	20	28.5	5	7.1

 

 

 

Table 3 shows the percentage scores 'of the respondents on given characteristics, approve that working class sport participants are more involved in sporting activities as compared to middle class participants.

The percentage indicates that the parents be­long to working class families encourage their daughters more as compared to middle class families. Further the participants of middle class families start sports activities from schools whereas the working class participants show their involvement from college level, where facilities are available to attract them.

The same adjective check list was also provided to Lahore based girls under study and they responded as under:

 

Table-5 (Lahore City)

Sr.	Adjectives	Middle Class N=70		Working Class N=70
		f	%	f	%
1	Adaptable	55	78.5	66	94.2
2	Affectionate	64	91.4	52	74.2
3	Ambitious	60	85.7	66	94.2
4	Attractive	64	91.4	52	74.2
5	Autocratic	68	97.1	40	57.1
6	Active	55	78.5	66	94.2
7	Capable	45	64.2	50	71.4
8	Civilized	66	94.2	60	85.7
9	Confident	64	91.4	66	94.2
10	Co-operative	50	71.4	66	94.2
11	Demanding	68	97.1	45	64.2
12	Determined	68	97.1	60	85.7
13	Energetic	40	57.1 ,	68	97.1
14	Enthusiastic	64	91.4	52	74.2
15	Foresighted	50	71.4	66	94.2
16	Forgiving	50	71.4	60	85.7
17	Generous	40	57.1	64	91.4
18	Helpful	55	78.5	66	94.2
19	Hopeful	65	92.8;	50	71.4
20	Intelligent	60	85.7 ; ,	40	57.1
21	Initiative	64	91.4	45	64.2
22	Mature	60	85.7'	66	94.2
23	Persistent	40	57.1	60	85.7
24	Practical	60	85.7	66	94.2
25	Planful	64	91.4	58	82.8
26	Responsible	50	71.4	66	94.2
27	Self confident	60	85.7	64	91.4
28	Straight forward	64	91.4	68	97.1
29	Strong	45	64.2	69	98.5
30	Un-excitable	64	91.4	40	57.1

Table 4 shows the difference of opinion on many of the adjectives between middle and working class sport participants, such as on adjectives-autocratic, demanding, intelligent and initiative. The middle class scored higher whereas on adjectives-active, energetic, cooperative and strong working class scored higher. It was also found that some adjectives socially disapproved in Pakistani society, the middle class has indicated more clearly than the working class. That shows the difference of attitude between the two groups involved in same activity. In the light of the perceptions of both groups, coach has to provide emotional and informational minnnrt in Fithletes for their well-being, motivation and performance.

The 40 college girls each from Middle and Working class were selected randomly and administered the same (PIQ), and they responded as under:

 

Table-6

Background Characteristics of Sport participants of Quetta City

	Background Cliaracteristics	Middle Class		Working Class
		N=40		N=40
1	Education	f	%	f	%
	First Year	19	47.5	26	65
	Second Year	16	40	12	30
	B.A/B.Sc	05	12.5	02	5
2   Place of Birth
Rural		4	10	2	5
Urban		36	90	38	95
3   Participation from academic class:-
VIII-Metric		14	35	31	77.5
Intermediate		17	42.5	07	17.5
B.A/ B.Sc		09	22.5	02	5
4   Encouragement from family parents
Yes		12	'30	22	55
No		28	70	18	45

 

Table 5 indicates that the ratio of the participants of both groups at Degree level is very low. 13 While discussion with Director Sports informed that most of the girls coming from rural areas rarely attend classes and parents do not encourage them to participate in sports activities. The girls belonging to middle class start playing games when they reach B.A/ B.Sc level, whereas the working class participants start sports activities from Matric class.

The forty number of female college students each from Middle and working clad were provided the same ACL and they responded as under:

 

Table-7 (Quetta City)

Adjective Check List of Quetta City.

Sr.	Adjectives	Middle Class N=40		Working Class N=40
		F	%	f	%
1	Adaptable	39	97.5	25	62.5
2	Affectionate	33	82.5	39	97.5
3	Ambitious	38	95	20	50
4	Attractive	36	90	20	50
5	Autocratic	34	85	28	70
6	Active	25	62.5	39	97.5
7	Capable	35	87.5	24	60
8	Civilized	30	75.5	32	80
9	Confident	32	80	34	85
10	Co-operative	28	70	33	82.5
11	Demanding	33	82.5	19	47.5
12	Determined	39	97.5	38	95
13	Energetic	30	75	34	85
14	Enthusiastic	34	85	20	50
15	Foresighted	19	47.5	38	95
16	Forgiving	25	62.5	30	"4775
17	Generous	20	50	28	70
18	Helpful	32	80	34	85
19	Hopeful	17	4.2.5	28	70
20	Intelligent	21	5:2.5	29	72.5
21	Initiative	20	50	28	70
22	Mature	37	92.5	25	62.5
23	Persistent	34	85	28	70
24	Practical	32	80	36	90
25	Planful	24	60	36	90
26	responsible	30	75	38	95
27	Self confident	23	57.5	28	70
28	Straight forward	37	92.5	36	90
29	Strong	35	87.5	39	97.5
30	Un-excitable	19	47.5	35	87.5

 

Table 6 shows that the working class endorsed more on adjectives such as active, energetic and strong whereas middle class girls emphasize on autocratic, attractive, confident, demanding, enthusiastic and mature. The objective to collect the data on these adjectives was to understand the feelings and thinking of the athlete to develop effective coordination between perceptions of the athlete and the coach, so that coach may train them considering their potential, agility, aptitude and providing them social and psychological support.

The same number of respondents were approached belongings to both classes of society and their response was as under:

Table-8 (Peshawar City)

Background Characteristics of Sport participants of Peshawar City

	Background Characteristics	Middle Class N=40		Working Class N=40
1	Education	f	%	f	%
	First Year Second Year B.A/B.Sc	03 13 24	7.5 32.5 60	10 18 12	25 45 30
2   Place of Birth
	Rural Urban	10 30	25 75	07 33	17.5 82.5
3   Participation from academic class
	VIII-Matric Intermediate B.A/B.Sc	23 11 6	57.5 27.51 15	28 08 04	70 20 10
4   Encouragement from family / parents
	Yes No	23 17	57.5 42.5	15 25	37.50 62.50

 

Table 7 shows the maximum number, of sport participation at B.A/ B.Sc level in both groups. The participation in sports from rural areas is lower as compared to urban area, which clearly indicates that parent belonging to middle class families encouraging their daughters more as compared to working class in Peshawar. The re­sults verify that middle class families are more involved towards sports activities than working class.

The same number of college girls from middle and working class families responded to the adjectives as under:

 

Table-9 (Peshawar City)

Sr.	Adjectives	Middle Class N=40		Working Class N=40
		f	%	f	%
1	Adaptable	32	80	36	90
2	Affectionate	25	62.5	37	92.5
3	Ambitious	38	95	20	50
4	Attractive	38	95	35	87.5
5	Autocratic	35	87.5	25	62.5
6	Active	26	65	39	97.5
7	Capable	34	85	24	60
8	Civilized	33	82.5	26	65
9	Confident	38	95	31	77.5
10	Co-operative	20	50	38	95
11	Demanding	36	90	20	50
12	Determined	29	72.5	35	87.5
13	Energetic	30	75	36	90
14	Enthusiastic	21	52.5	38	95
15	Foresighted	16	40	36	90
16	Forgiving	24	60	32	80
17	Generous	18	45	32	80
18	Helpful	26	65	36	90
19	Hopeful	32	80	35	87.5
20	Intelligent	36	90	28	90
21	Initiative	23	57.5	38	95
22	Mature	38	95	33	82.5
23	Persistent	31	77.5	32	80
24	Practical	28	60	38	95
25	Planful	34	85	20	50
26	Responsible	30	75	37	92.5
27	Self confident	26	65	39	97.5
28	Straight forward	34	85	38	95
29	Strong	30	75	36	90
30	Un-excitable	14	35	29	72.5

 

Table 8 indicates the higher scores of middle class on adjectives adaptable, affectionate, autocratic, ambitious, attractive, confident, demanding and stable whereas working class focus more on adjectives enthusiastic, foresighted, generous, strong and un-excitable. Thus, it is necessary for coach to learn about the perceptions of each athlete: how she interacts and responds to the environment and differs in terms of their personalities. By understanding these important factors she will be better prepared to understand how anxiety and mood affect athletic performance; how various cognitive and behavioral interventions can modify an athlete's mood..

The same number of college girls from middle and working class families of Islamabad, the capital city of Pakistan was administrated and their response to the given adjectives as under

 

Table-10 (Islamabad City)

Background Characteristics of Sport participants of Islamabad City

	Background Characteristics	Middle Class N=40		Working Class N=40
1.	Education	f	%	f    |    %
	First Year	20	50	22   |    55
	Second Year	12	30	14	35
	B.A/B.Sc	8	20	4	10
2    Place of Birth
	Rural	06	15	02   '    05
	Urban	34	85	38        95
3    Participation from academic class
	VIII-Matric	12	30	30	75
	Intermediate	23	57.5	07	17.5
	B.A/B.Sc	05	12.5	03	7.5
4    Encouragement from family / parents
	Yes	20	50	37	92.5
	No	20	50	03	7.5

 

Table 09 shows the class wise ratio of participation in sports of both groups is more or less the same. The participation score belonging to rural area of middle class is higher as compared to working class; As far as urban area is concerned both groups have similarity in sport participations. The percentage score also shows that working class girls are participating in sports from schools whereas middle class girls start playing games from college level. The percentage ratio of the families of working class encourage their daughters is higher as compared to middle class.

The same number of college girls from middle and working class families in Pakistan's capital city Islamabad, responded to the adjectives as under:

 

Table-11 (Islamabad City)

Sr.	Adjectives	Middle Class N=40		Working Class N=40
		f	%	f	%
1	Adaptable	29	72.5	27	67.5
2	Affectionate	20	50	37	92.5
3	Ambitious	37	92.5	25	62.5
4	Attractive	28	70	30	75
5	Autocratic	35	87.5	19	47.5
6	Active	19	47.5	36	90
7	Capable	36	90	25	62.5
8	Civilized	34	85	28	70
9	Confident	38	95	30	75
10	Co-operative	34	85	36	90
11	Demanding	34	85	20	50
12	Determined	39	97.5	38	95
13	Energetic	20	50	39	97.5
14	Enthusiastic	38	95	24	60
15	Foresighted	19	47.5	36	90
16	Forgiving	20	50	38	95
17	Generous	29	72.5	27	67.5
18	Helpful	28	70	33	82.5
19	Hopeful	37	92.5	34	85
20	Intelligent	35	87.5	28	70
21	Initiative	36	90	24	60
22	Mature	37	92.5	32	80
23	Persistent	25	62.5	29	72.5
24	Practical	30	75.	28	70
25	Planful	28	70	32	80
26	Responsible	35	87.5	36	90
27	Self confident	37	92.5	35	87.5
28	Straightforward	34	85	29	72.5
29	Strong	17	42.5	39	97.5
30	Un-excitable	20	50	36	90

 

Table 10 shows that the opinions of both groups on most of the adjectives are very similar. On some adjectives such as autocratic, demanding, enthusiastic and initiative, the percentage scores of middle class are higher whereas the working class considers more on adjectives energetic, foresighted. active and strong. These responses enable the coach to understand each athlete's perceptions while participating in the competitive sports that how much they like playing for the team (individual attraction) and how well they feel the team functions as a unit (group integration), coach may also measure the meaningful relationship between team cohesion and team or individual behavior.

Conclusion

On the basis of the results it was found that the sport particulars belonging to working class families in the capital cities of Pakistan and the provinces are hardworking, industrious, strong and determined as compared to middle class sport participants. The study clearly shows that sport participants of both classes need attention of parents and the educational institutions towards sports activities, and desire for adequate incentive on their achievements during competitions. The sense of realization and responses of the girls of both middle and working class sport participants were more or less have the same views, therefore, it was assessed that social class differences do not make any considerable obstacle on their perceptions as expressed by the female participants. Thus, it confirms that the female college students irrespective of social class belongingness tend to perceive greater amount of ideal characteristics in the ideal self.

Further, it was found that the sport participants are more affectionate, smart, and socially strong in tackling the affairs of the society and possess comparatively better societal understanding, predicting, communicating and controlling individual as well as collective behavior of women in the society as compared to non-sport participants. The studies and reports of the physical educationists have verified, to great extent, that physiological problem expressed were mainly on whims and lack of adequate information about women's health care. The women of 21 s' century are participating more in sports and engaging themselves in various physical activities for maintaining the effective physiological responses to bring laurels for Themselves and for the nation, and by enlarge lead to a happy domestic social life.

Exercise can promote physical as well as Psychological stability in women of all ages and make them more physically fit, agile, active and confident than non-athletes. Many studies have shown the importance of regular exercise, and women who exercise at least 4 hours a week reduce their risk of contracting pre-menopausal and breast cancer by 50 and women who exercise 2-3 hours a week reduce their risk by 30. The girls who participate in sports and fitness programs are healthier and have higher self-esteem.

 

Bibliography / References

 

Alderman R.B (1974) Psychological Behavior in Sports Philadelphia: Sanders Co

Alexnder J.F Serfas (1972) Fitness and Exercise, Chicago: Athletic Institute

Angela, Sharon Kay & Jennifer M (1999) Sports Ethics, New York: McGraw Hill Companies

Berlia P (1974) The Women Athlete, Mass: Addison - Wesley

Carron, A. (1980) Social Psychology of Sports. Ithaca, NY: Movement Publication. P.68

Chu D (1982) Dimensions of Sports Studies, New York: John Wiley & Sons, p.7

Coakley J (2001) Sports in Society issues & Controversies, New York: McGraw-Hill Publisher.?.210

Cox R.H (2000) Sport psychology in Encyclopedia of Psychology, (Vol. 7) pp, 443-46

Davies Don (1995) Physiological Factor in Competitive Sports

Philadelphia: The Palmer Press t4aque A (1982) Sex stereotypes among adults and children in Pakistan in R. Rath, H.S. Asthana, D. Sinha, & J. B. H. Sinha (Eds.), Diversity and unity in cross-cultural psychology Amsterdam: Swets and Zeitlinger, pp.238-249

Huma, S. & Zohra F. (1994) Perceived parental acceptance® rejection and academic performance ofpre-adolescent children, Jamshoro: S.U. Research Journal of Social Science, pp 1, 17&27

Qureshi Iqbal A. (1994) The role of Youth in Strengthening the Democracy, Seminar-Lecture at National Conference of Young Political Scientists Society of Pakistan (Sept. 13-14, 1994) NIPA, Karachi

Richard H. Cox (2002) Sports Physiology: Concepts & Applications, New York: McGraw Hill Companies, p. 188

Robert A. Mechikoffand Virginia Evans (1994) Sport Psychology for Women, New York: Harper & Row.

Zaidi, S.M.H. (1975) Adjustment of the problems of foreign Muslim students in Pakistan. Cited in

R.W Brislin, and W. Lonner (Eds), Cross-Cultural perspectives on learning, New York: Wiley.p.46

Vol.1/2010/10

Introduction:

The meaning in life must be conceived in terms of the specific meaning of a personal life in a given situation. Life is a chain of questions; and in his life, an individual has to set out for finding the answers to these questions by being responsible and also by making proper decisions. Each question has only one right answer. In course of searching the true meaning of his existence, this, however, does not imply that an individual is always capable of finding the right answer or correct solution to each problem, faced by him in his voyage in life.

The Greek word "Logos" represents the word, the will of God, the controlling principles of the universe, or meaning. Dr. Frankl, the introducer of "Logotherapy", translates logos as meaning (Fabry, 1994). Therefore, logotherapy means healing and maintaining health through meaning. According to Frankl (1967,1984,1986) there are two levels of meaning: the present meaning, or meaning of the moment, and the ultimate meaning or super-meaning. Since ultimate meanings exist in the supra-human dimension, which is "hidden" from us, Dr. Frankl believes that it is more productive to address specific meaning of the moment, of the situation, rather than talking about meaning of life in general. According to Frankl's dimensional ontology (Frankl, 1986), human beings exist in three dimensions - somatic, mental and spiritual. Spirituality is the uniquely human dimension. As because a person is a unity in complexity, these different dimensions must be understood in their totality, however

One of the prepositions of logotherapy says that the human spirit is our healthy core. However, the human spirit may be blocked by biological or psychological sickness, but it will remain intact. The human spirit does not get sick, even when the psychobiological organism is injured. A part of the human spirit is the unconscious (Frankl, 1969, 1986). When it is blocked or repressed, one experiences existential vacuum or neurosis. According to Fabry (1994), the noetic dimension or the human spirit contains love, the will to meaning, purpose, creativity, conscience, the capacity for choice, responsibility, sense of humour etc.

According to Frankl (1978), an individual can enjoy finite freedom. Our existence is influenced by instincts, inherited disposition and environment. Therefore, he is not free from conditions. But the conditions do not completely constrain him, he is free to take stand about them. Freedom of will is possible because of the human capacity for self-distancing or self-detachment. Hence, he is capable of choosing his attitude toward himself (Frankl, 1969). Again, responsibility follows freedom. As per Fabry (1994), responsibility without freedom is tyranny, and freedom without responsibility leads to anarchy, which in turn may bring forth boredom, anxiety, and neurosis.

 

The will to meaning is the basic striving of man to find meaning and purpose (Frankl, 1969). Because of the human capacity to transcend one's immediate circumstances, the will to meaning is possible. Self-transcendence often makes use of the power of imagination and optimism. Self-transcendence is essential for finding happiness, which is not the end, but the by-product of trying to forget oneself.

Every meaning is unique to each person, and each one has to discover the meaning of each particular situation. We can discover this meaning in life in three different ways: by creating a work or doing a deed; by experiencing something or encountering someone; and by the attitude we take towards unavoidable suffering (Frankl, 1984). However, suffering without meaning leads to despair.

Search for meaning is more likely to be occasioned by three negative facets of human existence: pain, guilt and death (Frankl, 1967, 1984). Pain refers to human suffering; guilt refers to the awareness of our fallibility and death refers to our awareness of the transmission of life. These negative experiences make us more aware of our needs for meaning and spiritual aspiration. Neuroses are more likely to originate from our attempt to obscure the reality of pain, guilt and death as existential facts (Frankl, 1967,1984).

Objective of the Study:

Physical education takes a crucial role in general education. However, a few numbers of studies are there to probe into the impact of physical education on various psychosocial and moral developments. Again, there is much theoretical speculation and empirical research about the effect of physical education on somatic and mental developmental; but the impact physical education on spiritual development has yet to be probed into. So, the present study is launched to ascertain the impact of physical education on the experience of purpose in life as it is in "logotherapy" of Viktor Frankl.

Method:

The present study was carried out through descriptive survey method within post-facto research design. The details regarding sample, tools, procedure of data collection and statistical technique have been reported as under.

Sample –

Twenty-six M. P. Ed. Students of Department of Physical Education, University of Kalyani (Kalyani, Nadia, W.B., India) were considered as the prospective physical education teachers in the study. All of the M. P. Ed. students were undergoing postgraduate course in physical education after completing their B. P. Ed. degree. These students are fresher (i.e. not yet teachers of any secondary / higher secondary school) as well as residential scholars.

Sixty-seven B. Ed. Students of Shimurali Sachinandan College of Education (a college affiliated to the University of Kalyani) were taken as the prospective general education teacher. Alt of the B. Ed. students were fresher (i.e. not yet teachers of any secondary / higher secondary school) and they had postgraduate degree along with graduate degree with honours. These students are day-scholars also.

Tools -

To measure the meaning in life, experienced by the prospective teachers, the Purpose in Life Test (PIL) of Crumbaugh and Maholick (1968) was selected. The reason for selection of this test was that it is specifically designed to measure Viktor Frankl's concept of existential vacuum and noogenic neurosis and this test has also been widely used to measure the concept of meaning in life in India and abroad (Doerris, 1970; Mohanty, 1990; Lalitha et al, 2005).

The PIL scale consists of three parts.

Part-A has 20 scaled Likert type sentences stems each with 7 response alternatives ranging from 1 (low purpose) to 7 (high purpose). Descriptive terms are used as anchors for the extreme points 1 and 7, and
position No. 4 is considered as neutral. There are 11 non-reversed and 9 reversed keyed items.

a. Part-B has 13 sentence completion items and,

b. Part-C requires writing of a paragraph on personal aims, ambitions and goals.

c. Part-A is the only one, which is treated quantitatively and has been used in most of the research endeavours in this field to date. Part-B and Part-C are not scored and little consideration is put to those in both the manual of the test and published research. In the present study also only the part-A of the test was used.

Procedure –

"Purpose in Life Scale" was administered on the subjects in two different sessions - one for B. Ed. Students and the other for M. P. Ed. Students, and the responses were scored as per scoring procedure, prescribed in the manual.

Statistical Analysis -

Independent samples "T" - test of two groups (B. Ed. & M. P. Ed. students) was done with the help of SPSS software.

Result:

Result of the present investigation is furnished in the following tables.

Table - 1: Showing Mean and Std. Deviation of M. P. Ed. and B. Ed. Students

	N	Mean	Std Deviation
M. P. Ed.	26	103.73	15.44
B. Ed.	67	92.67	14.58

Table - 2: Showing Independent Samples Test

	t	df	Sig. (2-tailed)
Equal variances assumed	3.230	91	0.002
Equal variances not assumed	3.148	43.316	0.003

 

Again, from Table - 2 we can observe that mean PIL score of the M. P. Ed. Students is significantly (statistically) higher than that of the B. Ed. students.

In general, prospective physical-education-teachers have more life satisfaction than the prospective general-education-teachers.

Discussion and Conclusion:

The scores obtained by a group or an individual in a psychological measurement become meaningful only with reference to norms of the tool, if available. The PIL score obtained in the present study therefore can also be better interpreted in comparison with the results obtained in other studies with the PIL test. A comparison of mean PIL scores, obtained from different studies is presented in the following table:

 

Table - 3: Showing the mean PIL scores in different studies

Studies		Nature of Sample	Mean PIL Score
Studies Abroad	Crumbaugh and Maholick (1964)	Non patients	119.00
	Crumbaugh and Maholick (1969)	Normal group	112.42
	Doerris (1970)	Low participating Students	100.45
		High participating Students	106.10
	Crandal and Rasmussen (1975)	Not known	108.89
	Ruffin (1982) reported in Lalitha et al (2005)	Not known	113.05
Indian Studies	Mehta (1982) reported in Lalitha et al, (2005)	Non handicapped youth	113.64
	Misra (1986) reported in Lalitha et al, (2005)	Teachers of Kolkata	100.86
	Mohanty (1990)	Teacher educators of Orissa	97.39
	Lalitha et al, (2005)	Teacher Trainees of A. P. Prospective physical-education-	99.41
	Present Study	Prospective general-education-teachers of W.B.	92.67

 

Table - 1 transpires that the mean PIL score of the M. P. Ed. Students is 103.73 whereas the mean PIL score of the B. Ed. students is 92.67

From the review of result presented in table -3, however, the prospective teachers of the present study are almost equal in their level of meaning in life with teachers of Kolkata (Misra, 1986 reported in Lalitha et al, (2005)), Teacher educators of Orissa (Mohanty, 1990) and Teacher Trainees (Prospective Teachers) of Andhra Pradesh (Lalitha et al, 2005). The mean PL score is rather low in all cases.

Existential vacuum or loss of meaning in life is usually reflected through the low PIL score. The relationship between meaninglessness or scores on the lower end of the continuum of the purpose in life test and unsuccessful living has been validated in studies that have shown strong relationship between low purpose/meaning in life scores and deviant behaviour such as psychiatric disorder, delinquency, drug addiction and alcoholism. Psychiatric patients tend to score significantly lower on the meaning in life than non-patient population (Crumbaugh and Maholick, 1964,1969; Yamell, 1971).

Frankl's existential vacuum is associated with the loss traditional values and familial relationships in modem western society. Indians because of their strong traditional values and familial support until late-adulthood are expected to experience less degree of existential anxiety and scores higher in PIL when compared to their western counterparts. In this connection, Mohanty (1990) feels that the low PIL scores of the Indian individuals are surprising and should be a cause of serious concern.

The unhappiness in the present millennium is a syndrome of existential vacuum, characterised by boredom, emptiness, lack of direction, and ignorance regarding what to do with one's life. Paucity of close kith and kin in modern society, mainly in urban areas, absence of shared vision for a better future life, focus mainly on the lustrous material aspects of life and the neglect of the spiritual aspects are some of the factors associated with loss of meaning in life in youths. Now a day, due to the effect of modernization, globalization, urbanization and revolution in modern information technology this scenario has become a global picture. This may be the cause of sharp decline in mean PIL scores through out the world form 1964 to till now (as per available data shown in table - 3). Among the youth, those who have come to the preparatory course for prospective teacher may be considered as the ones who are catching the last straw of opportunity in modern times. Hence, their low meaning in life, expressed by their PIL scores, is not surprising. It will be enlightening if we know whether the Indian youths preparing for other professions and jobs are also on the same level.

In spite of low, mean PIL scores the prospective physical education teachers have significantly (statistically) higher mean score than their general education counterparts.

As they are hostel dwellers, physical education students (i.e. the prospective physical education teachers of our country) lead a strict routine in life in course of taking their training. Above all, they have to perform different physical activities along with physical education training. Therefore, they enjoy freedom with much responsibility. These circumstances may provide many dues in quest of purpose in life and consequently, may bring forth life satisfaction. Life satisfaction is closely related to the quality of life (Muthny et al., 1990; Fountoulakis et al, 1997). Health and physical fitness are found to be two of the factors having a greater impact on life satisfaction (Beck. 1982; Garnet, 1982). The older person who have active lifestyles and participate in kinetic and non-demanding physical activities have shown higher level of mood state and life satisfaction, improvement in their mental and physical condition, and in general they seem to enjoy longer periods of independence and happier lives (Streib, G. & Schneider, 1971; Mahon & Searle, 1994). Recreational activities positively influence the psychological well-being and increase life satisfaction as well (Morris, 1996).

 

On the other hand, B. Ed. students (i.e. our prospective teacher of general education) are day-scholars and enjoy much freedom and less responsibility. They read and write, and usually, do not perform much physical activity on a regular routine so, their cognitive development may take higher pace; but life satisfaction lags. Physical education may put fuel to not only but mental as well as spiritual development too. To be ascertained enough about the impact of physical education on psychological wellbeing much rigorous probing should be launched with exhaustive number of variables.

References:

Beck, S.H. (1982) Adjustment to and satisfaction with retirement, Journal of Gerontology, 37, 5, 602-603

Crandal, J. and Rasmussen, R. (1975) Purpose in life as related to specific values, Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31, 15

Crumbaugh, J. and MahoVrck, L. (1964) An experimental study on existentialism: the psychometric approach to Frankl's concept of noogenic neurosis, Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20

Crumbaugh, J. and Maholick, L (1968) Manual of instruction for the purpose in life test, Munster, Psychometric Affiliates

Crumbaugh, J. and Maholick, L. (1969) Cross validation of purpose in life test based on Frankl's concept, Journal of Individual Psychology, 24

Doerris, L. (1970) Purpose in life and social participation, Journal of Individual Psychology, 26 Fabry, J. (1994) The pursuit of meaning. (New revised ed.). Abilene, Texas: Institute of Logotherapy Press

Fountoulakis, K., lakovides, B., lakovides A., Christofides, A., lerodiakonou, C. (1997) The validation of the Life Satisfaction Inventory (LSI) in the Greek population, Psychiatriki 8(4) pp292-304

Frank!, V. E. (1967) Psychotherapy and existentialism: Selected papers on logotherapy. New York: Washington Square Press/Pocket Books

Frank), V. E. (1969) The will to meaning: Foundations and applications of logotherapy. New York and Cleveland: The World Publishing Co.

Frankl, V. E. (1978) The unheard cry for meaning: Psychotherapy and humanism. New York: Simon & Schuster

Frankl, V. E. (1984) Man's search for meaning (Revised and updated). New York: Washington Square Press/Pocket Books

Frankl, V. E. (1986) The doctor and the soul: From psychotherapy to logotherapy (Revised and expanded). New York: Vintage Books

Garnet, E. (1982) Movement is Life: A Wholistic Approach to Exercise for Older Adults, Princetown, NJ: Princetown Book Company

Lalitha, T, Prabhakaram, KS, Sastri, DSN, Bhaskara Rao, D. (2005) Educational Philosophic Beliefs, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi - 110002

Mahon, M.J. & Searle, M.S., (1994) Leisure Education: Its effects on Older Adult, JOPERD, April, pp.36-41

Mohanty, R. K. (1990) A study of meaning in life burnoutsness and work orientation of teacher educators of Orissa. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Baroda: CASE, MS University

Morris, T. (1996) Recreation and well-being in older adults. In: Lidor, R. (ed.) Windows to the future: Bringing the gaps between disciplines, curriculum and instruction: Proceedings of the 1995 AIESEP World Congress, Netanva, Israel, The Zinman College, The Wingate Institute, 1996, pt.1. pp.209-215

Muthny FA, Koch, U. Stump, S. (1990) Quality of life in oncology patients. PsychotherPsychosom 54: 145-160 Streib, G., Schneider C. J. (1971) Retirement in American Life, Cornell University Press Yarnell, T. (1971) Purpose in life test - further correlates, Journal of Individual Psychology, 27

Vol.1/2010/11

In a nutshell:

The presentation is an account of the research study conducted on NIT Calicut campus to test the effectiveness of Wet training –vs- dryland training on the health related physical fitness of the resident university male students. 90 students were randomly assigned to wet- dry- control groups of 30 each, their pre-test measurements recorded, 12-week training assigned to them, final readings recorded, analyzed and results arrived at. The results of the study revealed pertinent advantage of trained student over sedentary counterpart. The study has unearthed research potential in technical campuses and offers scope for bifurcation to newer areas by future researchers.

Introduction

The sole aim of the study was to convince the authorities of the need for physical education treatment to rectify poor fitness standards on technical education campuses and to initiate appropriate curricular remedies. The Leader of tomorrow- the professional student needs to be fit to shoulder the country’s future. No government would want its doctors, scientists and Engineers to be unfit to practice their respective professions. Hence this calls for Physical educators doing justice by overcoming these maladies through research oriented programmes on the campuses.

Physical Fitness: A term synonymous to health in a limited manner. Is the capacity of an individual to live, function effectively, purposefully and to meet confidently the problems and crisis which are among life’s expectations. Larson and Yocom(1958) have listed Speed, Strength, endurance, flexibility, agility, coordination, balance, accuracy and resistance to diseases as the main components of Physical Fitness.

Health-related Physical Fitness: Rationally, for an average professional student, it will be impossible and unnecessary to try and develop all the physical fitness components listed above. Hence it will be prerogative of a researcher to make sure that a student possesses the bare-minimum vital components that qualify for Health-related Physical Fitness (HRPF). Baumgartner & Jackson (1991) have propagated the need for every individual to possess the HRPF components of:

Sl.No.	H R P F  Characteristics	Parameter chosen for the study
1.	Cardio-respiratory Function	VO2 Max.
2.	Abdominal & Low back-Hamstring Musculo-skeletal Function.	Flexibility
3.	Body Composition	Fat Percentage

Objective of the study

Researchers have revealed the multifaceted benefits of training, but how many do benefit from it due to constraints in a country like ours. Creating an awareness in the student is of prime importance and hence a study conducted on the student to quantify the physiological benefits of training would be second to none. He / she will remember that even after leaving the campus.

Statement of the problem

The main purpose of the study was to quantify the physiological benefits of tethered swimming and dry-land training among untrained raw resident university students( of NIT Calicut). The selection of the three HRPF parameters was justifiable mainly because of their relevance, simplicity and easy apprehension by students.

Hypothesis

Substantively and statistically, it was hypothesized that:

1. There would be significant effects due to 12 weeks of tethered swimming(Wet training) and dry-land training on the physiological parameters of the resident university males.

2. The tethered swimming group is likely to benefit better than the dryland group with regard to cardio-respiratory parameter.

3. When compared to the sedentary counterparts, both the training groups would exhibit overall significant response to training.

Significance of the study

1. The findings of the study would provide to the physical education faculty, a specific activity plan to promote HRPF goals on the campuses.

2. The study would prove the physiological superiority of the trained student over the sedentary counterparts.

3. The outcome of the study will educate the administrators of the benefits of Fitness and thereby creating an awareness that will carry through to the post-campus life as well.

4. The findings of the study would add to the knowledge-store house of interdisciplinary research in the field of physical education and other contemporary sciences.

5. The study would contribute greatly to the ongoing endeavours of governments and WHO in creating awareness among people of the need to develop healthy life-style.

6. Such studies alone would motivate the curriculum designers to give due importance to fitness on campuses.

Delimitations

1. The study was delimited to the resident raw untrained students of National Institute of Technology Calicut where all facilities and environment for uninterrupted research were readily accessible on the campus.

2. The researcher, an Associate Professor on the faculty had instant access to infrastructure and student-subjects.

3. The study was further delimited to a cross-section sample of 90 men-students who were randomly assigned to 3 groups of 30 each namely:

‘A’-- The Wet Training group,

‘B’—The Dryland Training group, &

‘C’—The Control group.

4. Group ‘A’ was delimited to Tethered swimming at NITC Swimming Pool and group ‘B’ was confined to 5 stations in NITC Gymnasium while the Control group ‘C’ was left on their own to pursue their choice life style.

5. The parameters were delimited to: (i)VO2 Max. (ii) Flexibility (iii) Fat percentage.

Limitations

1. The fact that the randomly assigned subjects were all in the same campus attending to similar curricular and co-curricular activities was considered a limitation in the study and their individual family back ground, habits, food habits, adaptive abilities to fluctuating environmental conditions were also considered as limitations.

2. Only 12 weeks were, though found adequate, assigned for the research study due to technical education curricular constraints.

3. No attempt was made to regulate climate, temperatures or environmental conditions that may have influenced the subjects during the study period.

4. No specific motivational techniques were resorted to during training, testing or practice due to academic constraints.

Definition of terminology

1. Training & Interval training:

Training is a programme of exercise designed to improve the skills and increase the energy capacity of an athlete for a particular event, Fox(1984). Interval training is a series of repeated bouts of exercise alternating with periods of relief. Light and mild exercise usually constitute this relief period.

2. Tethered Swimming training:

‘Tether’ is a rope, chain etc. preventing an animal from moving away from a restricted locality. It also means having bourne as much as one can bear.

In tethered swimming, the swimmer is attached to a rope tied to a resistance acting in opposite direction that the swimmer intends to move.

Swimming needs energy to maintain buoyancy as well as to generate horizontal movements by arms or legs in combination or separately. Energy is also required to overcome the drag forces that impede movement of objects through fluids. The energy cost of swimming a given distance is about four times greater than running the same distance, McArdle et.al.(1991).

3. VO2 Max. or Aerobic power:

Is defined as the greatest Oxygen uptake obtained by an individual while breathing air at sea levelduring the performance of physical work, Shaver(1972).

VO2 Max. is the maximal oxygen uptake and highest oxygen value per unit of time that the humanbody is capable of when breathing air, Morehouse & Miller(1976).

Special attention is to be directed to VO2 Max. or aerobic power concept, currently highly rated in the Exercise Physiology circles mainly because it enables the individual to utilise maximum amount of oxygen. Clarke, way back in 1976 has approved the use of submaximal exercise levels to measure VO2 Max. instead of the more tedious Gas-Analysis done in the labs. Individuals therefore need to work out at lower levels and their heart rate can be utilized to measure the maximal oxygen uptake.

4. Flexibility:

Singh hardayal (1991) has defined Flexibility as the ability to execute movements with greater amplitude or range. It is often equated with Stretchability, Elasticity, Suppleness, Mobility etc., the first two representing the special qualities of the muscle and ligaments by which these can be stretched and can regain their normal length with out any adverse effects on the concerned tissue.

Review of related literature

The researcher had referred extensively all relevant books, periodicals, journals, dailies, websites and experts pertaining to the study. Most of the leading libraries in the country were visited and 34 research abstracts were reviewed.

Methodology

Selection of subjects:

Ninety (90) male volunteers from among the student population of the NIT calicut between the age group of 18-23 yrs. were recruited for the study on a first-come-first-serve basis. Out of the 90, thirty each were randomly assigned to 2 experimental groups, namely ‘A’ Wet training group, ‘B’ Dryland training group and the remaining 30 to ‘C’ the Control group.

Selection of Variables:

A. Dependent Variables:	B. Independent Variables:
VO2 Max.	Tethered Swimming Training.
Flexibility.	Dryland Interval Training.
Fat Percentage.

Orientation and Pilot Study:

An in-depth orientation programme was held to acclimatize the subjects to the training and test environment. A Pilot study was conducted on 5 subjects from each group to ascertain the safe level of intensity, repetition, duration and recovery time of the two trainings in the study. The exercise battery regimen was thus formulated and made known to the subjects.

Training Programme:

TABLE I

TETHERED SWIMMING TRAINING PROGRAMME

PRESCRIPTION FORM ____ WEEK ONE TO TWELVE

Venue: NITC Swimming Pool

Stage	Weeks	Warm-up	Mode of Training	Intensity	Relief Period	Repetition	Total Duration
First	One to Three	Jogging around the pool, swim-ming at leisurely pace for five minutes	Non-stop swimming against tethered resistance	2 minutes	5 minutes of recovery including leisure-swim	5 Nos.	3Ominutes
Second	Four to Six	Same as in first stage	Same Pres- criptions as in stage-first	2 minutes	5 minutes	5 Nos.	3Ominutes
Third	Seven to Nine	Same as above	Same Pres-cription as above	2½ minutes	4 ½  minutes	5 Nos.	3Ominutes
Final	Ten to Twelve	Same as above	Same Pres-cription as above	3minutes	4minutes	5 Nos.	3Ominutes

Note: Throughout the twelve-week wet training programme, the WARMING-DOWN process consisted of relaxed swimming and light jogging for 1 ½ to 2 minutes.

TABLE II

DRYLAND INTERVAL TRAINING PROGRAMME

PRESCRIPTION FORM ____ WEEK ONE TO TWELVE

Venue: NITC Gymnasium

Stage	Weeks	Warm-up	Mode of Training	Intensity	Relief Period	Total Duration
First	One to Three	Jogging and light calisthenics for 3-5 minutes	a) Non-stop Skipping b) Non-stop Treadmill Running c) Exercycle Pedaling d) Sit-ups on Abdominal   conditioner e) Aerobic stand work-out	5 minutes 5 minutes 5 minutes 3 minutes 4 minutes	2 minutes of light jogging and calisthe-nics between each exercise bout	30 minutes
Second	Four to Six	Same as in first stage	Same prescription as above	Same as above	Same relief period as above	30 minutes
Third	Seven to Nine	Same as above	a) Skipping b)Treadmill Running c) Exercycle Pedaling d) Situps on abdominal conditioner e) Aerobic stand work-out	5½ minutes 5½ minutes 5½ minutes 3 minutes 4½ minutes	1½ minutes of light jogging and calisthe­nics between each exercise bout	30 minutes
Final	Ten to Twelve	Same as above	a) Skipping b)Treadmill Running c) Exercycle Pedaling d) Situps on abdominal conditioner e) Aerobic stand work-out	6 minutes 6 minutes 6 minutes 3 minutes 5 minutes	1 minute light jogging and calisthenics between each exercise bout	30 minutes

Note: Throughout the twelve-week dryland training programme, the WARMING-DOWN process consisted of 1 to 1½ minutes of calisthenics and light jogging.

Criterion measures:

1. VO2 Max capacity expressed in Litres/ minute was predicted from the ‘Astrand Rhyming Nomogram’ using submaximal heart rate recorded from Treadmill monitor and the body weight of subjects.

2. Flexibility parameter was meaed by SIT & REACH Tester approved by American Association of Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance(1988). The Sit & reach tester Box was used to measure the data which was represented in centimeters.

3. Fat Percentage or the degree of obesity is based on the amount of fat that is contained in the body. It is generally felt that men should not exceed 15 to 20% body fat, and women 25 to 30%. Hirsch and Knittle (1970). Most of the research literature substantiates the notion that regular physical exercise has a favourable effect on body composition for individual of all ages. The concern over the increased incidence of obesity in the campus was one of the factors that influenced the researcher to include fat percentage in the present quantification study. Fat fold measurements can provide consistent and meaningful information concerning body fat and its distribution. The ‘sum of fat folds’ for example, can also be used to reflect changes in fatness ‘before’ and ‘after’ a physical condition regimen. Studies conducted on subjects have shown that ‘triceps’ showed the largest decrease and subscapula the smallest decrease when changes due to training was expressed in percentage. Fat folds can be, in conjunction with mathematical equation, used to ‘predict’ percent body fat. These ‘population specific equations’ predict fatness fairly accurately for subjects similar in age, gender, state of training, fatness and probably race, McArdle et.al. (1991).

Based on several laboratory findings, a reliable equation to predict body fat for men aged 17 to 26 years was formulated which is as follows.

% body fat = 0.43 (A) + 0.58 (B) + 1.47

where (A) = triceps fat fold and (B) = Subscapula fat fold.

In the present study, the above universally approved formula was utilized to compute body fat percentage of subjects. Scarpendent skin fold calyper was used to record skinfold measures of triceps and subscapula and the data recorded in numerical (%) values.

Baumgartner and Jackson (1991) have opined that the repeated measurement of the individual on the same test was a univariate, not a bivariate situation. It is distribution of a single variable. Hence it makes sense, and is fit enough to use univariate statistics, like the intra-class correlation co-efficient.

Test Administration:

1. Age of subjects were recorded.

2. Submaximal heart rate was recorded from treadmill .

3. V02 max. was predicted in litres/ minute.

4. Fat percentage was recorded in % age.

5. Flexibility was recorded in cms.

6. Body weight was recorded in Kgs.

The 3 dependable variables of the study VO2 Max., Flexibility & Fat percentage were ascertained using methodology stated above in criterion measures.

Collection of Data

Pretest and Posttest data on the selected physiological parameters were collected , as per the following schedule:

A” Group- Wet training group : Sundays

B” Group- Dryland training group : Saturdays

C” Group- Control group : Fridays.

Statistical Technique:

Analysis of Covariance was used to test the adjusted mean difference of the three variables of the study separately, in order to determine the differences if any among the Wet training, Dryland training and Control groups. If the differences among the adjusted means were found significant, the Scheffe’s Post Hoc Test was applied to determine the significances of the paired mean differences of the three groups, Clarke and Clarke(1972).

Three groups were involved in the study and two trials were conducted on three dependent variables and each trial was twelve weeks apart from pre- to post-test stage. Variables are the characteristics of a population which differ from person to person or object to object, Cohen and Holliday (1979).

TABLE III

STATISTICAL DESIGN ADOPTED IN THIS STUDY INVOLVING 3X2X3 ANOVAS

Treatment (B) varied stages of experimental period		Treatment (A) Training
Training and Measurement Period		Group-A	Group-B	Group-C
		Wet training (Tethered Swimming)	Dryland Training (Dryland Interval Training)	Control
Pre-test Post-test	(Measurement at 00.00 weeks) (Measurement after 12 weeks)	A0-1   A 1-5	B0-1   B 1-5	C0-1 C1-5

A, B and C= Represent Groups, First Subscript=Represent Training Stages

Second Subscript= Represent Testing Stages

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The chapter deals with the analysis of the data collected from the samples under study as a result of tethered swimming and dryland training. The subjects were selected and assigned groups at random and were not equated in relation to the factors in which they were examined. Hence the mean differences of the 3 groups in pre-test data had to be taken in to account while analyzing the post-test mean differences. This was achieved by application of ANACOVA where-in final means were adjusted to the differences in the initial means and the adjusted means were tested for significance, Clarke & Clarke(1972).

The main purpose of the study was to quantify the effects of tethered swimming and dryland interval training on Physiological variables of V02 max., Fat- percentage and Flexibility possessed by NIT Calicut male-students.

1. RESULTS OF V02 MAX

The analysis of Covariance performed on the data (in litres/ minute)of Pre- and Post-test V02 max values of the two training groups and control group is presented in Table IV. The Pre-test means of Wet training group, Dryland training group and control group were 3.045, 3.258 and 3.138 respectively. The obtained F-ratio was 1.89. Since this was lower than the Table F-ratio of 3.109, it indicated that the difference among the pre-test means were not significant at 0.05 level of confidence (df 2 and 87). The post-test means of variable V02 max were 3.360 for Wet training group, 3.460 for Dryland training group and 3.052 for control group. The obtained F-ratio of 4.83 was seen to be higher than the Table F-ratio of 3.109. Hence the differences among the post-test means were significant at 0.05 level of confidence with degrees of freedom being 2 and 87.

TABLE IV

COMPUTATION OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF PRE-TEST, POST-TEST AND ADJUSTED POST- TEST ON VO2 MAX OF WET TRAINING, DRYLAND TRAINING AND CONTROL GROUPS

Means	Wet Training	Dryland Training	Control Groups	Source of Variance	Sum of Square	df	Mean Square	Obtained F Value
Pre-test	3.045	3.258	3.138	Between	0.690	2	0.500	1.89NS
				Within	22.790	87	0.264
Post-test	3.360	3.460	3.052	Between	2.720	2	1.500	4.83*
				Within	26.590	87	0.310
Adjusted Post-test Means	3.468	3.343	3.061	Between	2.599	2	1.300	130.00*
				Within	1.126	86	0.010
Mean Gains	0.315	0.202	0.087

*significant at 0.05 level, NS = Not significant Table F-value: 3.109.

The adjusted post-test means of Wet training group, Dryland training group and Control group were 3.468, 3.343 and 3.061 respectively. The obtained F-ratio was 130.00 and since this was higher than the table F-ratio value of 3.109, the adjusted post-test mean differences among the 3 groups were significant at 0.05 level of confidence (df 2 and 86). While the Wet training group was credited with a mean gain of 0.315, the Dryland group recorded a mean gain of 0.202 and the control group 0.087.

Scheffe’s post-hoc test was therefore resorted-to, to findout the significance of ordered adjusted final mean differences among the groups. Table V shows the Scheffe’s post-hoc test results. The ordered adjusted final mean differences for V02 max variable of experimental and control groups were tested for significance against Scheffe’s F-ratio.

The mean difference between Wet training group and Dryland training group was 0.125. The obtained F-ratio value of 18.012 was seen to be higher than the table F-ratio of 3.109. Hence the mean difference between Wet training and Dryland training group was significant at 0.05 level of confidence (df = 2 and 86).

TABLE V

ORDERED ADJUSTED FINAL MEAN DIFFERENCE ON V02 MAX OF CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS IN ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE AND SCHEFFE’S POST-HOC TEST

(Scores in Litres/Minute)

Wet Training Group	Dryland Training Group	Control Group	Mean Difference	Scheffe’s Post-Hoc Test F-ratio
3,468 3.468	3.343   3.343	3.061 3.061	0.125 0.407 0.282	18.012* 189.654* 90.769*

The Wet training and Control group showed a mean difference of 0.407 between them. Since the obtained F-ratio value of 189.654 was higher than the table F-ratio of 3.109, this mean difference was also significant at 0.05 level of confidence (df = 2 and 86). The mean difference between Dryland training group and Control group was 0.282. It produced a Scheffe’s post-hoc F-ratio of 90.769. Since this value was higher than the Table F-ratio of 3.109, this paired mean difference was also significant at 0.05 level of confidence with degrees of freedom 2 and 86.

2. RESULTS OF FLEXIBILITY

The analysis of Covariance on Flexibility data (in centimeters) between pre- and post-test of the three groups, namely Control, Wet training and Dryland training have been presented in Table VI. The Pre­test means of Wet training group, Dryland training group and control group were 25.613, 25.753 and 23.360 respectively. The obtained F-ratio was 4.23. Since this was higher than the Table F-ratio of 3.109, it indicated that the difference among the pre-test means was significant at 0.05 level of confidence (df 2 and 87). The post-test means of variable Flexibility were 26.423 for Wet training group, 26.687 for Dryland training group and 23.250 for control group. The obtained F-ratio of 8.41 was seen to be higher than the Table F-ratio of 3.109. Hence the differences among the post-test means were significant at 0.05 level of confidence with degrees of freedom being 2 and 87.

TABLE VI

COMPUTATION OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF PRE-TEST, POST-TEST

AND ADJUSTED POST-TEST ON FLEXIBIUTY OF WET TRAINING,

DRYLAND TRAINING AND CONTROL GROUPS

(Scores in Centimeters)

Means	Wet Training	Dryland Training	Control Groups	Source of Variance	Sum of Square	df	Mean Square	Obtained F Value
Pre-test	25.613	25.753	23.360	Between	108.250	2	54.000	4.23*
				Within	1110.940	87	12.770
Post-test	26.423	26.687	23.250	Between	219.500	2 87	110.000	8.41*
				Within	1137.520		13.080
Adjusted Post-test Means	25.713	25.835	24.813	Between	17.027	2 86	8.510	106.38*
				Within	6.712		0.080
Mean Gains	0.810	0.933	0.110

*significant cant at 0.05 level Table F-value: 3.109

The adjusted post-test means of Wet training group, Dryland training group and Control group were 25.713, 25.835 and 24.813 respectively. The obtained F-ratio was 106.380 and since this was higher than the table F-ratio value of 3.109, the adjusted post-test mean differences among the 3 groups were significant at 0.05 level of confidence (df 2 and 86). While the Wet training group was credited with a mean gain of 0.810, the dryland group recorded a mean gain of 0.933 white the control group’s mean gain was 0.110.

Scheffe’s post-hoc test was therefore resorted-to, to findout the significance of ordered adjusted final mean differences among the groups at table VII. The ordered adjusted final mean differences for Flexibility variable of experimental and control groups were tested for significance against Scheffe’s post-hoc F-ratio. The difference between the means of Dryland training group and Wet training group was 0.122. The obtained F-ratio value of 2.866 was seen to be lower than the table F-ratio of 3.109. Hence the mean difference between Dryland training group and Wet training group was not significant at 0.05 level of confidence (df= 2 and 86).

TABLE VII

ORDERED ADJUSTED FINAL MEAN DIFFERENCE ON FLEXIBILITY OF CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS IN ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE

AND SCHEFFE’S POST-HOC TEST

(Scores in Centimeters)

Dryland Training	Wet Training	Control Group	Mean Difference	Scheffe’s    Post-Hoc Test  F-ratio
25.835 25.835	25.713   25.713	24.813 24.813	0.122 1.022 0.900	2.866 200.862* 155.734*

Table F-ratio : 3.109, (df = 2 and 86) * Significant at 0.05 level

The Dryland training group and Control group showed a mean difference of 1.022 between them. Since the obtained F-ratio value of 200.862 was higher than the table F-ratio of 3.109, this mean difference was significant at 0.05 level of confidence (df = 2 and 86).

The mean difference between Wet training group and Control group was 0.900. It also produced a Scheffe’s post-hoc F-ratio of 155.734. Since this value was higher than the Table F-ratio of 3.109, this paired mean difference was also significant at 0.05 level of confidence with degrees of freedom 2 and 86.

3. RESULTS OF FAT PERCENTAGE

The analysis of Covariance of Fat Percentage data (in numerical %)of Pre- and Post-test of the two experimental groups and control group is furnished in Table VIII. The data were presented numerically in the form of percentage. The Pre-test means of Wet training group, Dryland training group and control group were 18.251, 18.686 and 19.188 respectively. The obtained F-ratio was 0.44. Since this was lower than the Table F-ratio of 3.109, it indicated that the difference among the pre-test means were not significant at 0.05 level of confidence (df 2 and 87). The post-test means of variable Fat Percentage were 16.260 for Wet training group, 16.075 for Dryland training group and 20.615 for control group. The obtained F-ratio of 15.720 was seen to be higher than the Table F-ratio of 3.109. Hence the differences among the post-test means were significant at 0.05 level of confidence with degrees of freedom being 2 and 87.

TABLE VIII

COMPUTATION OF ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF PRE-TEST, POST-TEST AND ADJUSTED POST- TEST ON FAT PERCENTAGE OF WET TRAINING,DRYLAND TRAINING AND CONTROL GROUPS

(Scores in Numericals)

Means	Wet Training	Dryland Training	Control Groups	Source of Variance	Sum of Square	df	Mean Square	Obtained F Value
Pre-test	18.251	18.686	19.188	Between	13.210	2 87	6.500	0.44
				Within	1273.180		14.632
Post-test	16.260	16.075	20.615	Between	396.170	2 87	198.000	15.72*
				Within	1096.170		12.598
Adjusted Post-test Means	16.677	16.096	20,178	Between	290.518	2 86	145.260	330.14*
				Within	37.776		0440
Mean Gains	1.991	2.610	1.427

*significant at 0.05 level, NS = Not significant Table F-value: 3.109.

The adjusted post-test means of Wet training group, Dryland training group and Control group were 16.677, 16.096 and 20.178 respectively. The obtained F-ratio was 330.140 and since this was higher than the table F-ratio value of 3.109, the adjusted post-test mean differences among the 3 groups were significant at 0.05 level of confidence (df 2 and 86). While the Wet training group was credited with a mean gain of 1.991, the dryland group recorded a mean gain of 2.610 and the control group’s mean gain was 1.427.

Scheffe’s post-hoc test was therefore resorted-to, to findout the significance of ordered adjusted final mean differences among the groups at Table IX. The ordered adjusted final mean differences for Fat Percentage data of experimental and control groups were tested for significance against Scheffe’s post-hoc F-ratio. The mean difference between Wet training group and Dryland training group was 0.5 81. The obtained F-ratio value of 11.525 was seen to be higher than the table F-ratio of 3.109. Hence the mean difference between Wet training and Dryland training group was significant at 0.05 level of confidence (df = 2 and 86).

TABLE IX

ORDERED ADJUSTED FINAL MEAN DIFFERENCE ON FAT PERCENTAGE OF CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS IN ANALYSIS OF

COVARIANCE AND SCHEFFE’S POST-HOC TEST

(Scores in Numbers)

Control Group	Wet Training	Dryland Training	Mean Difference	Scheffe’s Post-Hoc Test  F-ratio
20.178 20.178	16.677   16.677	16.096 16.096	3.501 4.082 0.581	418.441* 568.862* 11.525*

Table F-ratio : 3.109, (df = 2 and 86) * Significant at 0.05 level

The Wet training group and Control group showed a mean difference of 3.501 between them. Since the obtained F-ratio value of 418.441 was higher than the table F-ratio of 3.109, this mean difference was also significant at 0.05 level of confidence (df= 2 and 86). The mean difference between Dryland training group and Control group was 4.082. It also produced a Scheffe’s post-hoc F-ratio of 568.862. Since this value was higher than the Table F-ratio of 3.109, this paired mean difference was also siqnificant at 0.05 level of confidence with degrees of freedom 2 and 86. Similarly, the mean difference between Dryland group and Wet training group showed 0.581 producing a Scheffe’s post-hoc F-ratio of 11.525 showing significance 05 level of confidence with degrees of freedom 2 and 86.

DISCUSSION ON HYPOTHESIS

In the present study, the first hypothesis was stated as “ there would be significant effects due to the twelve weeks of Tethered swimming and Dryland training on the physiological parameters of the resident university males. The findings of the study showed that there were statistically significant effects, due to the Tethered swimming training and Dryland training on all the three physiological parameters of the study. Hence the first hypothesis was accepted in toto.

The second hypothesis was stated as “the tethered swimming group is likely to benefit better than the dryland group with regard to cardio-respiratory parameter”. The findings of the study statistically confirmed the superiority of wet training group over dryland training group in the cardiorespiratory parameter of V02 max. hence the second hypothesis was also fully accepted.

The third hypothesis stated was that “ when compared to the sedentary counterparts, both the training groups would exhibit overall significant response to training”. The results of the study was in confirmation with the overall benefit of training over non-training. Hence the third hypothesis was also proved right.

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary : Training studies have frequented in physical education, but mainly on elite athletes. The ordinary student has always wanted to be part of the universal process and the present study has made the most of this opportunity. The life style of the core-youth has always bothered the governments and university authorities. Hence an awareness drive has always been called for which could be accomplished by a study of this sort. The student involvement in such studies ensures first hand effects on the outlook of the campus community.

Findings & Conclusions: The present study has statistically revealed the superior benefits that a trained group will enjoy over its sedentary counterpart. It has also proved beyond doubt that a swimmer will possess a healthier heart and a spacious lungs.

Recommendations:

On the basis of the findings of the study, it is recommended that submaximal training of 12 weeks duration be resorted to for inculcating Health related Physical Fitness capability and thereby to lead a healthier life.

It is also recommended that wet training in swimming pool be adopted for better results in cardiorespiratory endurance.

Sedentary life style invites unwanted diseases and discomfort to ones life. Hence activity-oriented life style on the campus is recommended to prevent unnecessary ailments.

Apart from freedom from diseases, physical exercise ensures desirable traits like Personality, Reaction to situations, Nutritional status, Mental attitude, Craving for achievement, Posture and Structure. Hence scientifically designed training programmes are recommended for the residential campus.

Finally it is recommended that similar studies could be entertained with girls as subjects and with other physiological parameters.

!! JAIHIND !!

Vol.1/2010/12

PREAMBLE:

The General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, meeting in Paris at its twentieth session, this twenty-first day of November 1978,

Recalling that in the United Nations Charter the peoples proclaimed their faith in fundamental human rights and in the dignity and worth of the human person, and affirmed their determination to promote social progress and better standards of life,

Recalling that by the terms of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth therein without discrimination of any kind as to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth .or other consideration,

Convinced that one of the essential conditions for the effective exercise of human rights is that everyone should be free to develop and preserve his or her physical, Intellectual and moral powers, and that access to physical education and sport should consequently be assured arid guaranteed for all human beings,

Convinced that to preserve and develop the physical, intellectual and moral powers of the human being improves the quality of life at the national and the international levels,

Believing that physical education and sport should make a more effective contribution to the inculcation of fundamental human values underlying the full development of peoples,

Stressing accordingly that physical education and sport should seek to promote closer communion between peoples and between individuals, together with disinterested emulation, solidarity and fraternity, mutual respect and understanding, and full respect for the integrity and dignity, of human beings,

Considering that responsibilities and obligations are incumbent upon the industrialized countries and the developing countries alike for reducing the disparity which continues to exist between them in respect of free and universal access to physical education and sport,

Considering that to integrate physical education and sport in the natural environment is to enrich them and to inspire respect of the earth's resources and a concern to conserve them and use them for the greater good of humanity as a whole, Taking Into account the diversity of the forms of training and education existing In the world, but noting that. notwithstanding the differences between national sports structures, it is clearly evident that physical education and sport are not confined to physical well-being and health but also contribute to the full and well-balanced development of the human being,

Stressing the importance for peace and friendship among peoples of cooperation between the international governmental and non-governmental organizations responsible for physical education and sport,

Proclaims this International Charter for the purpose of placing the development of physical education and sport at the service of human progress, promoting their development, and urging governments, competent non-governmental organizations, educators, families and individuals themselves to be guided thereby, to disseminate it and to put it into practice.

Article 1 :

The practice of physical education and sport is a fundamental right for all

1.1 Every human being has a fundamental right of access to physical education and sport, which are essential for the full development of his personality. The freedom to develop physical, intellectual and moral powers through physical education and sport must be guaranteed both within the educational system and in other aspects of social life.

1.2 Every one must have full opportunities, in accordance with his national tradition of sport, for practicing physical education and sport, developing his physical fitness and attaining a level of achievement in sport which corresponds to his gifts.

1.3 Special opportunities must be made available for young people, including children of pre-school age, for the aged and for the handicapped to develop their personalities to the full through physical education and sport programmes suited to their requirements.

Article 2 :

Physical education and sport form an essential element of lifelong education in the overall education system.

2.1 Physical education and sport, as an essential dimension of education and culture, must develop the abilities, will-power and self-discipline of every human being as a fully integrated member of society. The continuity of physical activity and the practice of sports must be ensured throughout life by means of a global, lifelong and democratized education.

2.2 At the individual level, physical education and sport contribute to the maintenance and improvement of health, provide a wholesome leisure-time occupation and enable man to overcome the drawbacks of modern living. At the community level, they enrich social relations and develop fair play, which is essential not only to sport itself but also to life in society.

2.3 Every overall education system must assign the requisite place and importance to physical education and sport in order to establish a balance and strengthen links between physical activities and other components of education.

Article 3 :

Physical education and sport programmes must meet individual and social needs.

3.1 Physical education and sport programmes must be designed to suit the requirements and personal characteristics of those practicing them, as well as the institutional, cultural, socio-economic and climatic conditions of each country. They must give priority to the requirements of disadvantaged groups in society.

3.2 In the process of education in general, physical education and sport programmes must, by virtue of both their content and their timetables, help to create habits and behavior patterns conductive to full development of the human person.

3.3 Even when it has spectacular features, competitive sport must always aim in accordance with the Olympic ideal, to serve the purpose of educational sport, of which it represents the crowning epitome. It must in no way be influenced by profit-seeking commercial interests.

Article 4 :

Teaching, coaching and administration of physical education and sport should be performed by qualified personnel

4.1 All personnel who assume professional responsibility for physical education and sport must have appropriate qualifications and training. They must be carefully selected in sufficient numbers and given preliminary as well as further training to ensure that they reach adequate levels of specialization.

4.2 ‘Voluntary personnel’, given appropriate training and supervision, can make an invaluable contribution to the comprehensive development of sport and encourage the participation of the population in the practice and organization of physical and sport activities.

4.3 Appropriate structures must be established for the training of personnel for physical education and sport. Personnel who have received such training must be given a status in keeping with the duties they perform.

Article 5 :

Adequate facilities and equipment are essential to physical education and sport.

5.1. Adequate and sufficient facilities and equipment must be provided and installed to meet the needs of intensive and safe participation in both in-school and out-of-school programmes concerning physical education and sport.

5.2. It is incumbent on governments, public authorities, schools and appropriate private agencies, at all levels, to join forces and plan together so as to provide and make optimum use of installations, facilities and equipment for physical education and sport.

5.3. It is essential that plans for rural and urban development include provision for long-term needs in the matter of installations, facilities and equipment for physical education and sport, taking account the opportunities offered by the natural environment.

Article 6 :

Research and evaluation are indispensable components of the development of physical education and sport.

6.1 Research and evaluation in physical education and sport should make for the progress of all forms of sport and help to bring about an improvement in the health and safety of participants as well as in training methods and organization and management procedures. The education system will thereby benefit from innovations calculated to develop better teaching methods and standards of performance.

6.2 Scientific research, whose social implications in this sphere should not be overlooked, must be oriented in such a way that it does not allow of improper applications to physical education and sport.

Article 7 :

Protection of the ethic al and moral values of physical education and sports must be a constant concern for all.

7.1 Top –class sports and sports practiced by all must be protected against any abuse. The serious dangers with which phenomena such as violence, doping and commercial excesses threaten its moral values, image prestige pervert its very nature and change its educative and health promoting function. The public authorities, voluntary sports associations, specialized non parents, supporters’ clubs, trainers, sports managers and the athletes themselves must combine their efforts in order to eliminate these evils. The media have a special role to play, in keeping with Article 8 in supporting and disseminating information about these efforts.

7.2 A prominent place must be assigned in curricula to educational activities based on the values of sport and the consequences of the interactions between sports, society and culture.

7.3 It is important that all sports authorities and sportsman and women be conscious of the risks to the athletes and more especially to children, of precocious and inappropriate training and psychological pressures of every kind.

7.4 No effort must be spared to highlight the harmful affects of doping, which is both injurious to health and contrary to the sporting ethic, or to protect the physical and mental health of athletes, the virtues of fair play and competition, the integrity of the sporting community and the rights of people participating in it at any levels, and parents, educators, the medical profession, the media, trainers, sports managers, and the athletes themselves, to ensure that they abide by the principles set out in the existing texts, and more particularly the International Olympic Charter against Doping in sport. To the end, a harmonized and concerted policy must guide them in the preparation and application of anti-doping measures and of the education action to the undertaken.

Article 8 :

Information and documentation help to promote physical education and sport.

8.1 The collection, provision and dissemination of information and documentation on physical education and sport constitute a major necessity. In particular, there is a need to circulate information on the results of research and evaluation studies concerning programmes, experiments and activities.

Article 9 :

The mass media should exert a positive influence on physical education and sport.

9.1 Without prejudice to the right of freedom of information, it is essential that everyone involved in the mass media be fully conscious of his responsibilities having regard to the social importance, the humanistic purpose and the moral values embodied in physical education and sport.

9.2 Relations between those involved in the mass media and specialists in physical education and sport must be close and based on mutual confidence in order to exercise a positive influence on physical education and sport and to ensure objective and well-founded information. Training of personnel for the media may include elements relating to physical education and sport.

Article 10 :

National Institutions play a major role in physical education and sport.

10.1 It is essential that public authorities at all levels and specialized non-governmental bodies encourage those physical education and sport activities whose educational value is most evident. Their action shall consist enforcing legislation and regulations, providing material assistance and adopting all other measures of encouragement, stimulation and control. The public authorities will also ensure that such fiscal measures are adopted as may encourage these activities.

10.2 It is incumbent on all institutions responsible for physical education and sport to promote a consistent, overall and decentralized plan of action in the framework of lifelong education so as to allow for continuity and co-ordination between compulsory physical activities and those practiced freely and spontaneously.

Article 11 :

International co-operation is a prerequisite for the universal and well-balanced promotion of physical education and sport.

11.1 It is essential that States and those international and regional intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations in which interested countries are represented and which are responsible for physical education and sport give physical education and sport greater prominence in international bilateral and multilateral co-operation.

11.2 International co-operation must be prompted by wholly disinterested motives in order to promote and stimulate endogenous development in this field.

11.3 Through co-operation and the pursuit of mutual interests in the universal language of physical education and sport, all peoples will contribute to the preservation of lasting peace, mutual respect and friendship and will thus create a propitious climate for solving international problems. Close collaboration between all interested national and international governmental and non-governmental agencies, based on respect for the specific competence of each, will necessarily encourage the development of physical education and sport throughout the world.

Designed by Eiko Emori; Published and distributed by the Information Science of The Canadian Commission for UNESCO 255 Albert Street, Ottawa, Canada KIP 5V8. Available on request February 1980.

Vol.1/2010/13

1 Assistant Professor, Dept. of Physical Education & Sports, PEC University of Technology, Chandigarh www.pec.ac.in

2 Lecturer, Education Department, Govt. of Punjab, Chandigarh

Introduction:

Obesity threatens to become the 21st century’s leading health problem. As more Nations become industrialized and urbanized, the prevalence of obesity would inevitably rise. The rapidly increasing prevalence of obesity has led to obesity being characterized as an epidemic. According to the World Health Organization, obesity and its complications are the leading health threat globally problem and India would be its epicenter.

Obesity has also been experimentally and clinically linked with both physiological and psychological trauma. Hormonal imbalances, emotional trauma, and alterations in basic homeostatic mechanisms have all been shown to be either directly or indirectly related to the onset of obesity. Environmental factors, such as cultural habits, inadequate physical activity, and improper diets, are major cause of obesity (Wilmore and Costill, 1999). Xavier and Sunyer (1991) observed that health risk of obesity increases with its severity. Risk factors include hypertension, hypertriglycemia cemia, low high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL – C) and in some high total and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL – C). Chronic hypoxia and hypercania, Sleep, apnea, gout and degenerative joint diseases can occur with more severe obesity. The distribution of body fat is directly related to these health risks. Abdominal obesity is more dangerous than gluteal form obesity: therefore risk of CVD, stroke, hypertension, diabetes increases with abdominal obesity, even independently of total fat mass. Obesity is also frequently associated with dyslipidemian, hypertension and hyperinsulinemia and is consequently a risk for coronary heart disease (Banoro et al., 1992). Obesity is not only a disease in the medical sense, but also a serious social, psychological and economic problem. It diminishes the efficiency and happiness of those affected. Obesity has long been recognized as an important aspect of human health and the AAHPER has included body composition assessment in its health oriented physical fitness test. High percentage of body fat decrease the ability of cardio respiratory system to supply oxygen to various parts of the body, thereby lowering one’s cardio respiratory endurance capacity. Fat causes poor performances in the area of cardio respiratory endurance because it not only places an over load on the circulatory system and heart to have pump more blood to a large vascular system, but fat also acts as dead weight in the body (thus offering extra resistance to movement) while contributing nothing to muscle contraction (Shaver, 1982).

While fat may be detrimental to most physical activities that require either horizontal or vertical type of movements on land, It is apparently an asset to swimmers, who need the fat for insulation purposes (specially channel swimmers) and for buoyancy purposes. The increased buoyancy and decreased heat loss due to the subcutaneous fat more than off set the disadvantage of the greater weight to be moved (Krishna, 1988). Evidence suggests that physical activity confers health benefits that are largely or entirely independent of changes in body composition. These findings suggest that overweight and obese individuals can obtain the same benefits of physical activity as lean individuals. While the overall health benefits of physical activity have become well accepted, the general assumption (even among many within the scientific community) has been that the benefits are contingent or dependent on corresponding changes in body composition. While physical activity can lead to changes in body composition, the amount of change depends on an individual’s variability in metabolism and possibly other lifestyle behaviors. The cellular and metabolic adaptations occurring as a result of physical activity appear to be independent of these changes. Therefore, an overweight or obese person can have good cardiovascular health as long as she remains active and possesses a reasonable level of fitness. (President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, 2000). Keeping in view the direct link between one’s health and quality of life that may be in terms of total personality or fitness or efficiency/performance, it was pertinent to explore the various aspects of human beings which are the key factors for good health. Thus, the present study was designed to investigate selected physiological parameters of obese and non-obese college women.

Procedure:

For the purpose of this study five hundred students of Khalsa College for Women, Ludhiana studying in Degree classes were selected as subjects using random sampling technique. The age of the subjects ranged between 17 to 23 years. Body Mass Index of all the subjects was determined by dividing body weight in kilogram by the square of body height in meters and on the basis of Body Mass Index of the subjects three groups namely lean (BMI<25 kg/m2), average (BMI 30 to 34.5 kg/ m2) and obese (BMI ≥35 kg/m2) were formed out of five hundred subjects as study groups. Each group consisted of 50 subjects.Data for Physiological parameters of Haemoglobin (Hb), Blood sugar, Total Cholesterol, High Density Lipoproteins (HDL), Low Density Lipoproteins (LDL), Very Low Density Lipoproteins (VLDL), Triglycerides and Phospholipids Cholesterol 9PHOL CH) were measured through blood tests and standard equations in a Pathological Laboratory under standard set conditions by the qualified laboratory technologist. To compare the obese and non-obese subjects in their Physiological parameters the data were subjected to one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) through SPSS Software. Scheffe’s Post Hoc Test was applied to further see the differences between paired means, if F-ratio was found to be significant at .05 levels.

Results:

Analysis of variance(ANOVA) for the means of the lean, average and obese groups in Physiological variables namely Haemoglobin (Hb), Blood Sugar, Total Cholesterol (TC), High density lipoproteins (HDL), low density lipoproteins (LDL), very low density lipoproteins (VLDL), Triglycerides and Phol cholestrol has been presented in Table 1.

Table 1 : Analysis of Variance for the Means of Lean,

Average and Obese Groups in Physiological Variables

Variables	Variance	Df	SS	MS	F
Haemoglobin	Between	2	1.29	0.65	0.82*
	Within	147	114.70	0.78
Blood Sugar	Between	2	557.05	278.52	5.87*
	Within	147	6970.12	47.42
Total Cholesterol	Between	2	2982.20	1491.10	23.67*
	Within	147	9257.50	62.98
HDL	Between	2	38.51	19.25	0.31*
	Within	147	8864.09	60.30
LDL	Between	2	1495.47	747.73	9.55*
	Within	147	11499.00	78.22
VLDL	Between	2	36.99	18.49	1.55
	Within	147	1747.56	11.88
Triglycerides	Between	2	909.17	454.58	1.54
	Within	147	43352.25	294.91
Phol Cholestrol	Between	2	4152.80	2076.40	23.67*
	Within	147	12890.50	87.69

* Significant at .05 Level F.05 (2.147) = 3.06

Table 1 showed that there were no significant differences among lean, average and obese groups on haemoglobin, HDL, VLDL and Triglycerides as their respective F-ratios of 0.82, 0.31, 1.55 and 1.54 were less than the F-value of 3.06. But there were significant differences among lean, average and obese groups on Blood sugar, Total Cholesterol, LDL and Phol Cholesterol as their respective F-ratio of 5.87, 23.67, 9.55 and 23.67 were found to be more than the F value of 3.06 at .05 level of significant. As the obtained F-ratios for these Physiological variables were found to be significant the Scheffe’s Post Hoc test was applied to determine the significance of differences between the paired means on these variables. The Post Hoc analyses have given in Table 2, 3, 4 and 5 for Blood Sugar, Total Cholesterol, LDL and Phol Cholestrol.

Table 2 : Ordered Mean and Difference between paired Means for Lean,

Average and Obese Groups in Blood Sugar

Means (Mg/dl)			MD
Lean	Average	Obese
76.80	76.08	-	0.72
76.80	-	80.48	3.68*
-	76.08	80.48	4.4*

* Significant at .05 Level Scheffe’s Confidence Interval = 3.40

Table 2 showed that the difference between paired means for the average and obese groups (4.4), lean and obese groups (3.68), were found to be significant as the Scheffe’s Confidence Interval of 3.40 was less than these values. But the differences between average and lean groups (0.72) was not found to be statistically significant.This indicated that average and lean groups did not differ from each other significantly, where as the average and obese group and lean and obese groups showed significant differences from each other on the contents of Blood Sugar.

Table 3: Ordered Mean and Difference between paired Means for Lean,

Average and Obese Groups in Total Cholesterol

Means (mg/dl)			MD
Lean	Average	Obese
153.58	158.84	-	-5.26*
153.58	-	164.50	-10.92
-	158.84	164.50	-5.66*

* Significant at .05 Level Scheffe’s Confidence Interval = 3.92

It is evident from Table 3 that the difference between paired means for the lean and average groups (5.26), lean and obese groups (10.92), and average and obese groups (5.66) were found to be significant, as the Scheffe’s Confidence Interval of 3.92 was less than these values. This indicated that all three groups differed significantly from each other on the contents of Total Cholesterol.

Table 4 : Ordered Mean and Difference between paired Means for Lean,

Average and Obese Groups in Low Density Lipoproteins (Ldl)

Means (mg/dl)			MD
Lean	Average	Obese
98.30	99.40	-	-1.1
98.30	-	105.48	-7.15*
-	99.40	105.48	-6.08*

* Significant at .05 Level Scheffe’s Confidence Interval = 3.36

It may be observed from Table 4 that the difference between paired means for the lean and average groups (1.1) was not found to be statistically significant, where as the difference between paired means for the lean and obese groups (7.18), and average and obese groups (6.18), were found to be significant as the Scheffe’s Confidence Interval of 4.36 was less than these values. This indicated that the lean and average groups did not differ significantly, where as the lean and obese average and obese groups differed significant on the contents of low density lipoproteins (LDL).

Table 5: Ordered Mean and Difference between paired Means for Lean,

Average and Obese Groups in In Phol-Cholesterol

Means (Mg/dl)			MD
Lean	Average	Obese
181.22	187.43	-	-6.21*
181.22	-	194.11	-12.89*
-	187.43	194.11	-6.67*

* Significant at .05 Level Scheffe’s Confidence Interval = 3.62

Table 5 indicated that the difference between paired means for the lean and average groups (6.12), lean and obese groups (12.89), and average and obese groups (6.68) were found to be significant, as the Scheffe’s Confidence Interval of 4.62 was less than these values. This indicated that all three groups differed significantly from each other on the contents of phol-cholesterol.

Findings:

The results of the study indicted that in the variable of Blood Sugar, Total Cholesterol, Lower Density Lipoproteins (LDL) and Phospholipids Cholesterol significant differences existed among lean, average and obese study groups where as three groups did not show any significant differences in Haemoglobin (Hb), High Density Lipoproteins (HDL), Very Low Density Lipoproteins (VLDL) and Triglycerides. Obese group had significantly higher contents of Blood Sugar than lean and average groups. Similarly total cholesterol content was significant higher (though in normal range) obese group as compared to lean and average groups. Lean and average groups did not show any significant differences excited between lean and obese groups and average and obese groups on this parameters. All the three groups significantly differ on Phospholipids Cholesterol as in the case of total Cholesterol.

Discussions:

The physiological variables of Haemoglobin, Blood Glucose, Total Cholesterol, High Density Lipoproteins, Low Density Lipoproteins, Very Low Density Lipoproteins, Triglycerides and Phospholipids Cholesterol are directly related with the cardiovascular system of human body and play a key role in human performance and good health particularly cardiac fitness. Observation of this study indicated that the higher percentage of body fat contributes negatively to the Blood Sugar, Total Cholesterol, Low Density Lipoproteins and Phospholipids Cholesterol. Which may be because of increased responses of body fat to Lipoproteins lipase. Because of high Lipolytic activity, abdominal adiposities readily released free fatty acid (FFA) into the circulation. These FFA are carried directly to the liver through the portal circulation where they are converted into Very Low Density Lipoproteins (VLDL) and ultimately Low Density Lipoproteins Cholesterol. The high levels of FFA may also lead to enhanced lipid oxidation and reduced glucoyen oxydiation. These changes can result in high level of blood glucose (Present’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, 2000). Due to this fact the obese group may be carried higher level of Blood Glucose, Total Cholesterol, Low Density Lipoproteins and Phospholipids Cholesterol as compared to lean and average groups. Although all the values of these Physiological parameters were within the prescribed standardized normal range among three study groups. The findings in relation with total Cholesterol are in conformity with the findings of Lizeete (1993) and Kissebah, et al (1982). The hypothesis with regard to Physiological variables stated in this study was partially rejected.

Reference:

1. Ardle, William D., and Katch, A. (1991). Exercise physiology energy, Nutrition and human performance. 3rd ed. London : Lea and Febiger Publishers.

2. Banoro, E., et al (1992). Influence of body fat and its regional localization on risk factor for athersclerosis. American Journal of Epitome 135.

3. Fox, Edward L. (1983). Sports Physiology. Tokyo: Saunders College Publishing.

4. Kissebah, Ahmed H., et al (1982). Relation of body fat distribution to metabolic complications of obesity. Journal of Clinical Endoerinology and Metabolism 82:254.

5. Krishna, Gopal (1988). Multivariate analysis of obese and non-obese college men and its implication in training. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Jiwaji University, Gwalior

6. Lizette, Sanchez-Lugo (1993). The effects of a diet-exercise program on blood lipids, blood pressure, and diabetes indices in relation to body fat and body fat distribution. Dissertation Abstracts International 01:175-B.

7. Mathews, Donalk K., and Fox Edward, L. (1976). The Physiological basis of Physical Education. 2nd ed. New York: Saunder’s College Publishing.

8. President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports (2002). Physical activity protects against the health risk of obesity. Research Digest 3:12.

9. Rarick, L.G. (1971). Human Growth and Development. New York: H.B. Jounovich Publishers.

10. Shaver, Larry G. (1982). Essentials of Exercise Physiology. Delhi: Surjeet Publishers.

11. Singh, Jagtar (1992). Alterations in C-P index, body composition and anaerobic capacity as a result of similar training programme in males and females. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Jiwaji University, Gawalior.

12. Wilmore, Jack H., and Costill, Danid L. (1999). Physiology of sports and Edercise. 2nd ed. New York: Human Kinetics Publisher.

13. Xavier, F., and Sunyer, P. (1991). Health implication of obesity. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 53:159.

Vol.1/2010/14

ABSTRACT:

Effects of 10 weeks participation in a Ploymetric Training programme on Selected Physiological Variables on 80 numbers of adolescent students were studied. Result of the study indicated that the Ploymetric training programme have yielded positive changes by the subjects. The pre-test and post-test comparisons in respect of all the selected Physiological variables were positive and significant at 0.05 level of significance.

Key Words: Ploymetric Training, Physiological Variables: Resting Heart Rate, Resting Systolic Blood Pressure, Resting Diastolic Blood Pressure.

Introduction:

Plyometric training is now a common element of elite sports training programmes, and is increasingly used by other athletes and their coaches. But while its beneficial effects on the lower body are well documented, there are some lingering doubts over how useful it is for upper body force development.

First documented as an effective training method by Soviet coaches in the middle of the last century, the main purpose of ‘plyometrics’ is to increase the rate of force development, the key ingredient of power. By contrast, the main purpose of heavy weight training is to increase total force production – i.e. maximum strength.

It is logical for athletes to seek to increase the rate of force development, because most sporting movements involve fast movements for which forces must be generated quickly. The foot-to-ground contact time in the high jump, for example, is less than 100 milliseconds, yet it will take around 500 milliseconds to generate maximum force. For elite performance, an athlete’s rate of force development is often more important than the maximum force he or she is able to generate.

The other advantage of plyometric training is that it comprises jumping and throwing movement patterns that involve a stretch-shortening-cycle (SSC). The muscle and tendons are first lengthened with an eccentric load – e.g. pulling back your arm to throw a ball – which may increase the subsequent concentric force production and/or allow release of elastic energy – e.g. as the arm accelerates forwards to release the ball. Since most sporting movements involve sprinting, jumping and throwing SSC movements, plyometric training can be viewed as highly sport specific.

Power (P) can be developed by improving strength and speed of the muscle contraction or both (P= force x velocity). In competitive sports the athletes and players are unable to place their strength or speed to work in a power movement. New methods and improved techniques have been introduced and developed to bridge the gap between strength and speed of numerous sports. Exercise physiologists, sports scientists, coaches and athletes have searched for an effective method to combine strength and speed using one training technique. Plyometrics has been developed as such a technique to meet an end to the searches. Plyometrics has been defined as drills or exercises whose purpose is “linking sheer strength and speed of movement to produce an explosive-reactive type of movement” (Chu & Plummer, 1984, p.30).

Few studies have investigated the effects of ploymetric training. The storage of elastic energy and the stretch reflex mechanisms within the muscles are two major physiological effects of ploymetric training (Thomas, 1988; & Mann, 1981). Thomas (1988) stated that improvement in muscular force and jumping ability during Plyometrics are related to such concept of stretch reflex and elastic recoil respectively.

The purpose of the study was to find out the effect of a ploymetric training programme on selected physiological parameters of adolescent school going boys.

Materials and Methods:

The study was conducted on 40 numbers boys belonging to class IX and X. All subjects were fully informed of the risks and discomfort associated with the investigation before accepting their willingness to act as subjects. Subjects were randomly selected into two groups of 20 subjects each. Group A, the experimental group participated in ploymetric training. Group B, the control group were allowed to perform their regular physical activities but denied for participation in ploymetric training. The training stimuli adopted for a six week long included ploymetric training exercises as listed below.

Ploymetric Training Exercises:

1. Exercises for Lower Extremities:

• Spot Jump
• Standing Jumps
• Multiple Hop Jumps
• Box Drill
• Depth Jump

2. Exercises for Upper Extremities:

• Front toss
• Over-under pass
• Trunk rotation
• Over head throw
• Rotation in eight figure.

The above stated Ploymetric exercises were performed thrice in a week for one hour in the afternoon under the direct supervision of the investigator. Prior to practicing the exercises the subjects were being asked for getting warmed-up for 10 minutes and to follow the demonstration of each exercise.

Data Analysis:

Test scores were subjected to statistical analysis. Indices like means and standard deviations were computed for comparison. The mean and standard deviation values were calculated for the three physiological variables: (a) Resting Heart Rate, (b) Resting Systolic Blood Pressure, and (c) Resting Diastolic Blood Pressure. To find out significance of the difference or the change that occurred between pre-and-post tests, ‘t’ test was applied.

Table 1

Mean, SD Scores and Result of the Test of Significance (‘t’) in respect of Physiological Variables of Experimental and Control Groups.

Physiological Variables	Groups	Pre-test		Pos-test		‘t’
		Mean	SD	Mean	SD
Resting Heart Rate	Group B	74.5	3.73	74.6	2.61	0.326
	Group A	78.6	6.45	75.6	4.36	4.68*
Resting Systolic B.P.	Group B	117.7	8.92	117.8	8.36	0.37
	Group A	114.5	6.35	117.5	8.48	3.94*
Resting Diastolic B.P.	Group B	75.7	6.07	75.8	5.79	0.32
	Group A	75.1	5.27	78.3	6.9	3.7*

Table 1 indicates significant differences between pretest and posttest of the Experimental Group (Group A) on all the physiological variables namely Resting Heart Rate, Resting Systolic Blood Pressure, and Resting Diastolic Blood Pressure. Whereas no significant difference are observed between pretest and posttest of the Control Group (Group B) on all stated physiological variables. In case of Resting Heart Rate of Experimental Group (G-A) the obtained‘t’ value was 4.68 and found to be greater than the required ‘t’ value (2.09) and significant at 0.05 level of significance with 19 degrees of freedom. The Resting Systolic Blood Pressure of Experimental Group (G-A) the obtained‘t’ value was 3.94 and found to be greater than the required ‘t’ value (2.09) and significant at 0.05 level of significance with 19 degrees of freedom and the Resting Diastolic Blood Pressure of Experimental Group (G-A) the obtained‘t’ value was 3.7 and found to be greater than the required ‘t’ value (2.09) and significant at 0.05 level of significance with 19 degrees of freedom.

Conclusion:

The six week long ploymetric training programme on the adolescent students have proved to be effective on selected physiological variables and significant at 0.05 level of significance.

Vol.1/2010/15

Track and field events are the most popular physical contest in the world. In layman’s term mere physical contest itself means track and field contest. The peculiarity of the track and field competition is that it can be performed at any level at any convenient place. Any normal ground can be marked for track and field events. The rules in conducting the competition can also be manipulated according to the convenience without much discrepancies.

It can be said that there are no schools, colleges other educational institutions without facilities for athletic competitions. Therefore, the organizers, physical education teachers and coaches are inclined to mark the athletic competition arena sometimes without observing the national or international rules for track & field marking. But the basic rules for standard or non-standard track marking is one and the same as that for standard track marking. Physical Education Teachers and physical Education Trainees should be aware of the necessity for marking the track according to the accepted norms. They also should know the rules to be observed while marking the track.

TRACK MARKING & MARKING POINTS TO REMEMBER

The length of a standard track for running competition is 400 mts. This includes two straights and two curves. The width of the track shouldn’t be less than 9.76 mts. (i.e 8 lanes with at least 1.22 mts. Width each). Unless it is a grass track, the inner lines of the track should have raised borders or kerbs (curbs). Kerbs can be made of concrete or any such other material. The approximate height minimum width of kerbs should be 5 cms. If there is no kerb in the inner lane, lines with 5 cms width should be marked. Flags should be fixed on these lines at a distance of every 5 meters.

MARKING STAGGERS

Staggers are created only because of curves. Staggers distances change only when there is change in lane width and when the kerb is absent. The starting line is the first lane should be extended to the other lanes (finish lines) and from this line the calculated stagger distance in each lane should be marked properly. There is no stagger in the first lane. Stagger starts from the second lane onwards. The stagger distance in each lane should be measured by leaving 0.20 mts from the outer edge of inner line of each lane. Stagger distance should be measured by laying tape outside the intermittent nails (1 metre distance between the nails) which are pegged leaving 0.20 mts from inner edge of each lane. It is better to take separate measurements for measuring stagger distance in each lane. Stagger distance should be measured by stretching out the steel tape properly. To mark stagger distance after measurements, it is necessary to draw a scratch line across the track by stretching out a wire from the middle point of the curve. After that 5 cms lines are to be marked with tape.

AIM

On an Athletic Track the marking of staggers is a time consuming activity. No accurate method for manual marking of stagger is available. The aim of this paper is to suggest simplified and accurate method for manual marking of stagger and relay change over zones.
Staggers are required to be marked on imaginary lines known as Running Distance curve (RDC). Literature suggests use of large number of nails to be put on RDC so that the stretched tape follows RDC. This method is time consuming and inaccurate due to tape following a straight line between two nails. The improved method uses computer programme for converting curved staggers on RDC to chords on actual curved lines for straight marking by stretching the tape without use of any nails.

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD)

Today’s CAD Technology can provide the engineer/designer the necessary help in the following:

Computer Aided Design (CAD) is faster and more accurate than conventional methods. The various construction facilities available in CAD would make the job of developing the model and associated drafting a very easy task. In contrast with the traditional drawing methods, under CAD it is possible to manipulate various dimensions, attributes and distances of the drawing elements. This quality makes CAD useful for design work. Under CAD you will never have to repeat the design or drawing of any components. Once a component has been made, it can be copied in all further works within seconds, including any geometric transformation needed. You can accurately calculate the various geometric properties including dimensions of various components interactively in CAD, without actually making their models and profiles. Modification of a model is very easy and would make the designer’s task of improving a given product simple to take care of any future requirements. Use of standard components (part libraries) makes for a very fast model development work. Also a large number of components and sub-assembles may be stored in part libraries to be reproduced and used later. Several professional CAD packages provide 3D (3 dimensional) visualization capabilities so that the designers can see the products being designed from several different orientation. This eliminates the need of making models of product for realization and explaining the concepts to the team. Not only this, several designers can work simultaneously on the same product and can gradually build the product in a modular fashion. This certainly provides the answer to the need of today’s industry and the one emerging on the horizon.
The method has been tested at J.N.Stadium, Warangal, NIT Stadium, Hanamkonda. and L.B.Stadium,Hyderabad and found to be very accurate and time saving.

METHODOLOGY

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Computer Aided Design (CAD) is faster and more accurate than conventional methods. The various construction facilities available in CAD would make the job of developing the model and associated drafting a very easy task.

To suggest simplified and accurate method for manual marking of stagger and relay change over zones. The improved method uses Computer Aided Design (CAD) Programme for converting curved staggers on RDC to chords on actual curved lines for straight marking by stretching the tape without use of any nails.

As per the Table-1 with the applications of the CAD could find out the Accurate Angle, Straight length from the (30 & 20 cms), Straight length from Reference, In between Straight Length, Distance covered in the 400 m track for 80 m straight in full staggers.

As per the Table-2 with the applications of the CAD could find out the Accurate Angle, Straight length from the (30 & 20 cms), Straight length from Reference, In between Straight Length, Distance covered in the 400 m track for 80 m straight in Half staggers.

Table-1. 80 METERS FULL STAGGERS

Stagger	I	II	III	IV	V	VI	VII	VIII
CDR	37.88	39.1	40.32	41.54	42.96	43.98	45.2	46.42
RDR	38.18	39.3	40.52	41.74	42.96	44.18	45.4	46.62
	0	7.04	14.71	22.38	30.05	37.71	45.38	53.05
Angles	0	10.26	20.79 (10.53)	30.70 (9.91)	40.06 (7.36)	48.88 (8.82)	57.24 (8.36)	65.17 (7.93)
In between Straight    Length	0	7.02	7.43	7.21	7.01	6.79	6.61	6.44
Straight length from  (30 & 20 Cms)	0	7.02	14.62	22.09	29.42	36.55	43.49	50.21
Straight length from    Reference	0	7.01	14.38	21.43	28.14	34.5	40.52	46.22
Distance Covered	400m	407.03	414.70	422.37	430.03	437.71	445.37	453.04

 

Table 2. 80 METERS HALF STAGGERS

Stagger	I	II	III	IV	V	VI	VII	VIII
CDR	37.88	39.1	40.32	41.54	42.76	43.98	45.2	46.42
RDR	38.18	39.3	40.52	41.77	42.96	44.18	45.4	46.62
	0	3.52	7.36	11.19	15.03	18.86	22.69	26.53
Angles	0	5.13	10.40 (5.57)	15.35  (4.95)	20.04 (4.69)	24.45 (4.45)	28.63 (4.18)	32.60 (3.97)
In between Straight  Length	0	3.51	3.72	3.60	3.51	3.4	3.31	3.23
Straight length from  (30 & 20 cms)	0	3.51	7.35	11.15	14.95	18.71	22.45	26.17
Straight length from    Reference	0	3.63	7.49	11.24	14.87	18.39	21.81	25.13
Distance Covered	200	203.51	207.35	211.18	215.02	218.85	222.69	226.52

CONCLUSION

Improved method is simple, less time consuming, accurate and recommended to be adopted for teaching and professional use.

REFERENCES

1. Rogers D. F. and J. A. Adams, “Mathematical Elements for Computer Graphics”, McGrawhill, New York, 1976.

2. Groover M. P. and E.W. Zimmers, “CAD/CAM: Computer Aided Design and Monitoring”, Prentice Hall, Eglewood Clitts, New Jersey, 1984.

3. Mortenson M. E., “Geometric Modeling”, John Wiley, New York, 1985.

4. Ibrahim Zeid, “CAD/CAM, Theory and Practice”, Tata McGraw Hill Edition, 1998.

5. Jacob, K. K., “Book of Rules of Games and Sports”, YMCA Publishing House, New Delhi, 2006.

6. Anand R. L., “Playing Field Manual”, NIS Publication, Thomson Press (India) Limited, Haryana, India, 1986.