Vol.1/2020/66

HOLISTIC DEVELOPMENT IN PERSONAL ADVANCEMENT OF ATHLETE THROUGH SPORT MANAGEMENT

M.K.A.Anoma Rathnayaka

Senior Lecturer Gr.II

Department of Sport Science & Physical Education

Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Kelaniya

Sri Lanka

ABSTRACT

At the present world it is believe that a performance can present their abilities and skills only in an international sport events which is the world championships of a person can gain. In this scenario need to have a collaboration from all sort of management related to the sport management. This will be key factor of in holistic development which has become the most considerable sector of the sport management. The purpose of this study was to examine, how personal advancement effects to the holistic athlete’s development and to identify the significant role of sport management perspective.

The research takes the form of a case study. Primary data was collected from multiple perspectives, multiple situations and using semi - structured interviews. A random sample is used to represent the entire data population. This study was conducted on 20 athletes (national players who represented International sport competitions in last five years of period (2013-2018)) of 10 women and 10 men. To analyze the data a common framework for setting comprehensive athlete outcomes four C’s model, which was characterized by a competence, confidence, connection and character were used. Results indicated that the world championships adopted will obviously have a significant impact on the way the individual managers think his or her sport should be managed. Further this research found that participating international sport competitions effects on enhancing skills of physical, mental, emotional, and social skills, at the same time which will give a sense of personal identity, as well as feeling or grouping memberships, and social identifications to the athletes. Which cause to have more international winning awards to the personal.

It concludes that adopting the best practices of sport management will have aligned healthy, character building, good sportsmanship, fair play for all participants, good citizenship and equitable opportunities. If there will be more qualified and skilled sport managers those who managing the sport sector it will be resulted to have the successful sport observances and result oriented sport culture in the country. Finally, this research suggests that there is a strong need for more empirical research to prove this argument.

Keywords: Sport Management, Athletes, Holistic Development

Vol.1/2020/67

Physical Activity and Physical Fitness of Lithuanian Children

Background. Health-related physical fitness refers to the favorable health status, i.e. ability to perform daily activities with vigor, as well as capacities that are associated with a low risk for development of chronic diseases and premature death. However, in school aged children it is constantly declining, which prognosticates increasingly earlier onset of health problems, decreasing the quality of life of the population and financial burden for the society (Li et al, 2011; Ruiz et al, 2009; Andersen et al, 2004). As well, overweight and obesity in childhood and youth lead to lifelong overweight and obesity and are associated with greater risk and earlier onset of a range of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, type II diabetes as well as psychological disorders. In turn, overweight and obese youth have lower chances to improve their physical fitness capacities. Many western societies are faced with a recent worrying trend of declining physical fitness and, at the same time, increasing rates of overweight and obesity among children and youth. Among the main risk factors for decreasing physical fitness are the increasing levels of sedentary behavior and low physical activity.

The current presentation will cover two epidemiological studies executed among Lithuanian school age children of 11 – 18 years-old that aimed to identify the levels of their physical activity and physical fitness across gender and age.

Physical activity

Methods and results. Physical activity was measured by Physician-based Assessment and Counselling for Exercise (PACE) questionnaire among 5141 adolescents, 2502 boys (48.7%) and 2639 girls (51.3%), aged between 11 and 19 years.

It was found that on average adolescents met the physical activity guideline of 60 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity a day, for 3.6 days/week. A total of 3426 adolescents (66.6%) were inactive or has not performed at least 1 h of physical activity/day < 5 days/week). Boys were more active than girls and younger adolescents (11–12 years) were significantly more active than older adolescents (13–19 years).

Physical fitness

Methods and results. Data for physical fitness indicators were collected from three separate cross-sectional samples in 1992, 2002 and 2012. The Eurofit test battery was used to assess the different components of physical fitness: balance, flexibility, muscular strength, power and endurance, agility, and cardiorespiratory fitness. The battery has been validated in adolescents as informative in the assessment of physical fitness. Weight and height were also measured and body mass index (BMI) calculated.

The results revealed a consistent increase in body mass of children of both genders between 1992 and 2012. The study also showed loss of flexibility, leg muscle power, upper body strength and cardiorespiratory fitness between 1992 and 2012. Among the measured physical fitness abilities, loss in endurance 20 m shuttle run performance (a proxy for aerobic fitness and cardiorespiratory endurance) was the most dramatic and while the decrement was more substantial from 1992 to 2002, the negative change while at a slower pace continued until 2012. Although there was an improvement in abdominal muscle strength in girls, agility in boys and balance in both genders during the same period. At large, negative trends in aspects of fitness seen between 1992 and 2002 have not slowed down between 2002 and 2012. Positive trends in agility and abdominal muscle strength seen before 2002 have regressed or were reversed between 2002 and 2012, while balance continued to improve at increased pace. The analysis of covariance has shown that BMI was not the main cause of changes in fitness.

Conclusion. If these general negative trends in physical activity and physical fitness among Lithuanian school-aged children continues, it will compromise the well-being of future adults and create a serious economic burden on the society. The findings of these studies suggest that it is necessary to increase the level of physical activity in Lithuanian adolescents through implementing multidisciplinary programs to reinforce the practice of physical activity and improve physical fitness. Moreover, environmental elements such as social and physical environmental factors should be considered when designing and implementing these multidisciplinary programs.

Vol.1/2020/68

MANAGEMENT OF PROFESSIONALIZATION OF MODERN OLYMPIC SPORT IN THE CONTEXT OF ADVANCED EXPERIENCE IN ORGANIZATION PROFESSIONAL SPORT

Olha Borysova

National University of Ukraine of Physical Education and Sport, UKRAINE

Corresponding Author: Olha Borysova, borisova-nupesu@ukr.net

Abstract. Purpose of the study: substantiate the possibility of using the experience of professional sports for the development of Olympic sports in the conditions of commercialization and professionalization.

Research methods included: analysis, synthesis and generalization; comparison, comparison and analogy; abstraction, induction, deduction; modeling; analysis of scientific and methodological literature and documentary sources; historical-logical, concrete-historical, comparative-historical; system approach and structural-functional analysis; surveys and observations; methods of mathematical statistics.

Results: Possibility of use of experience of professional sports for development of Olympic kinds of sports in conditions of commercialization and professionalization is proved; the history-theoretical analyzes of development of professional tennis in the world is carried out; and also the complex analyzes of professional tennis as social phenomenon, its organizational-legal and economic forms, management structures at the international and national levels is carried out, features of a labor market and regulation of labor relations are allocated. Application of the dialectic approach has allowed not only to analyze and generalize from uniform positions available in the literature and world experience of a basis of functioning and a direction of development of sports, but also to find the general logic of such widely discussed questions in the modern literature, as formation and perfection of national systems of sports, problems of preparation of sportsmen of a high class etc.

Conclusion: The received knowledge concerning tennis, experience of its development in sports movement can be applied in other kinds of Olympic sports. Given the high cost of training high-class athletes, the state’s interest in raising the level of the national championship, forming relationships with athletes of national teams, which allow them to control their preparation for the main starts - world championships, the Olympic Games, it is advisable to use this mechanism to reorganize and improve the country's sports system, forecasting its trends and development prospects, taking into account already committed and corrected errors. The combination of intellectual resources not only in space (leading experts in the world in various fields: law, economics, organization, sports, etc.), but also in time (historical aspect) can contribute to the construction of an effective generalized concept for the development of sports, its transformation or management them.

Keywords: system of the organization and management of sports, sports competition, commercialization and professionalization of sport, professional tennis, business, marketing, model

Introduction. Prompt growth of popularity of sports on international scene, increase of the political importance of performances of sportsmen as factor of national prestige, professionalization and commercialization Olympic sports cause necessity of optimization of a management system of sports in the country. It is characteristic, that an orientation to the maximum social and economic efficiency, an esthetics and staginess today are not less important components of sports, than sports result. Change of relative density of a professional component in the general system of sports predetermines necessity of special attention to all kinds of maintenance of sports preparation: organizational-administrative, economic, legal, personnel, material, scientifically-methodical, medical, etc. (Platonov V., Bubka S., Bulatova M., 2009; Imas Y., Borysova O., 2017).

One of the basic tendencies of development of a modern society is globalization owing to which defining features of functioning of modern sports are: integration into market economy system, migration of sportsmen and coaches, formation of the powerful transnational market of the sports equipment, information and ideological measurements.

The radical changes occurring in modern sports of the higher achievements, cause necessity of working out of its strategy of development at national level according to universal tendencies. In a special measure it concerns the Post-Soviet countries having enormous historical and practical experience of construction of an effective management system and preparation of sportsmen in Olympic sports, but practically absent - in professional sports.

Thereof, today there was a sharp necessity for the analysis of tendencies of development of professional sports, and also possibility of use of the American and West European experience for the purpose of development of national systems. The special attention by methodology of professionalization Olympic kinds and development of kinds of sports which traditionally have the status professional, is involved with long-term history of development of tennis as professional kind of sports.

Material & methods. The methodological basis of the study was a dialectical approach based on awareness of the universality of the relationships of social processes and phenomena, an adequate reflection of reality. The research methodology is also based on the knowledge and experience gained in the field of Olympic and professional sports, which are presented in the works of domestic and foreign experts.

Results and Discussion.

Modern tennis was presented in the program of the 1st Olympic Games in 1896. Later, the professionalization of tennis and the contradictions associated with it regarding the policies of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) led to the exclusion of this sport from the Olympic program in 1926. For 62 years, tennis developed exclusively as a professional sport and was returned to the program of the Olympics only in 1988 after liberalization of the IOC policy regarding the professionalization and commercialization of Olympic sports.

Tennis entered in Olympic program with its own rules and traditions, a universal structure and the decisive role of the economic component, advanced management, with balanced rights and obligations of players and organizational and management structures based on the principles of democracy. At the same time, tennis throughout the entire modern history relied on the philosophy of Olympism, the fundamental principles of the Olympic movement (Borysova O. V., 2011).

As the model of development of sports in the country can explain universality of tennis from following positions (fig. 1).

Significantly important is the significant duration of the development stages (over 20 years), which allows us to determine the differences in the state of the object at the beginning and at the end of the review, which have sufficient expressiveness.

The absence of tennis in the Olympic program for more than 60 years has contributed to its effective development in accordance with the requirements of the time, and not just the Olympic Charter, and what is extremely important is the creation of an organizational and management system, the main feature of which is compromise (Fig. 2): the presence of various governing organizations The Association of Professional Tennis Players (ATP), the Women's Tennis Association (WTA) and the International Tennis Federation (ITF), the democratization of the sport, determined by the role of athletes, their independence from national federations and the solution of many legal issues.

Globalization in sports is an objective consequence of an aggravation of insoluble problems at the state level and contradictions, develops irrespective of activity of national social institutes and is caused by the external reasons for them. Tennis globalization provides both natural association and a corporate reconstruction (fig. 2) (Amis J., T. B. Cornwell, 2005).

Today, tennis presents almost all aspects of the globalization of sports institutions: management structures (international federation and professional associations), personal and team competitions, as well as athletes themselves. Corporatization through the use of tools and methods of management and marketing of sports contributes to the formation of tennis as a spectacle and market for goods, which is based on the universal differentiation of labor. Such a system of organization and management based on transnationalism (communication, interaction, media) and cosmopolitanism allows us to solve the problems of natural selection in sports and the individual implementation of athletes, regardless of nationality and level of development of sports in the country.

The analyzes of dynamics of development of tennis, since the Ancient world and finishing the present which allows to assert, that a major factor of development of a kind of sports was interest of the upper class (kings, the nobility, presidents), and features of functioning at various historical stages - a kind elitism, absence sports orientations (entertainment) and professionalization, providing both criterion of a social accessory, and reception of material compensation (fig.3).

In history of development of modern tennis 5 periods are allocated: 1875-1895; 1896-1925; 1926-1967; 1968-1987; 1988 - on the present time, caused by basic influence of set sociopolitical, business factors and factors of development of sports movement. Origin of tennis in the conditions of formation of free market relations, its exception of the program of the Olympic Games for the long period (from 1928 to 1988), an era of “open tennis” (since 1968). Fast rates of development and popularization of a professional direction in the world have defined professionalization and commercialization an amateur direction and, as consequence, creation of uniform international system of competitions. The essential factor which has affected development of modern tennis, returning to it of the status of an Olympic kind of sports, the admission of professionals to participation in Olympic games that promoted not only to progress of professional tennis practically in all member countries of the international Olympic movement (207 national federations), has affected features of a sports labor market and regulation in it of labor relations, but also became a source of the best practices for professionalization other kinds, search of perspective ways of an exit from the contradictions which have developed between Olympic and professional sports.

Today in tennis development take part more than 200 countries of the world, each of which differs a public and political system, national signs, legal and organizational systems. For increase of efficiency of organizational-legal regulation we will allocate object and a subject. As object tennis on global (international) and national (the separate countries-participants) levels acts. As a subject activity and behavior of people - subjects of the market (heads, functionaries, sportsmen, coaches etc.), and also relations between the international and national, public and state organizations of a various orientation (sports, commercial, scientific, medical etc.) the world countries (fig. 4).

Today, the prevalence of international law over national legislative norms is noted, which often leads to contradictions in the legislative framework. International law is advisory in nature, but the governing national sports organizations, federations, clubs in their activities are guided by the generally accepted rules and charters in the world, legislative acts. An example of such provisions and acts in sports are: the IOC Olympic Charter, the Anti-Doping Code of the Olympic Movement, the charter of the International Sports Federation (ISF), the rules and regulations of competitions, etc.

The main organizations that determine the legal framework for the functioning of tennis at the international level are the structures of the Olympic sports field: ITF, IOC and the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS), and professional organizations: ATP, WTA, American Arbitration Association (AAA).

Development of world professional tennis occurs according to the laws inherent in difficult systems. The commercial organizations form the markets of the finance and work, manufacture and sale of sports-entertainment services and the consumer goods, the mechanism of free prices, etc. Accessory of system of professional tennis to business sphere causes atmosphere of a rigid competition in all its structural formations, dictated by the market, that, on the one hand, makes active processes of monopolization in the system, with another - provides its further development. Thus in a prize there are practically all subjects of market relations: tennis players, their agents, coaches, organizers of tournaments, firms-sponsors, spectators (sellers and buyers of sports-entertainment services), etc. (fig. 5).

The modern system of the organization of professional tennis in the world represents transnational association with global level of the management, which activity is directed on transformation of a kind of sports to the profitable commercial enterprise with culture of "super states" dominating in it (mainly to the USA), where the result of work (a product - a show) is sale more than in 200 countries. Tennis globalization in economic, organizational, legal, technological, information, scientifically-technological, social, political and other displays has caused formation of structure of the world tennis bourgeoisie united corporate (first of all economic) interests. It is necessary to carry to them: firms-manufacturers of the goods, services and entertainments (including mass-media); the international sports organizations; leading tennis players-professionals (fig. 6).

Feature of modern tennis, and in particular systems of competitions, is not only stability of a calendar (carrying out terms), but also attachment to sports objects (a carrying out place). Today tennis tournament is the independent and economic action assuming not only direct carrying out of competitions, but also the decision of some organizational questions, questions on the property rights, attraction of financial assets, participation of players etc. As a bright example for that four tournaments of "Grand Slam".

Stability of organizational-administrative system of tennis, absence of the crisis phenomena, characteristic for other kinds of sports (mutual relation of players and organizers, economic), is predetermined by activity of three administrative organizations - ATP, WTA, ITF, the competitions forming uniform system, providing balance between financial indicators, achievements in sport and a corresponding place in Olympic movement, and also independence of sportsmen as subjects of the market from national structures (state and public), including at definition of priorities of the career.

The basic features of functioning of national structures of the professional tennis defining efficiency and equation of their activity, are: various schemes of formation of an infrastructure of sports, level of achievements in sport of leaders and national teams, quality of the organization of internal and international competitions, conditions for preparation of sportsmen and work of coaches, and also the home market and change condition, occurring in a society (social, economic, political, etc.). The general for all subjects is dependence of development of national organizational-administrative structure on the tendencies in world system of professional tennis.

The factors having the high importance and defining an organizational condition of professional tennis for the countries in transitive conditions as for Ukraine are (fig 7.): bases of system of the sports, put in pawn during the Soviet period; social and economic possibilities; rates of their adaptation to market conditions; national traditions.

At the same time active participation political and statesmen, heads of local administrations, prominent representatives of business circles, a science and culture, mass media in tennis development, and also use of the advanced sports practice of the strongest western professional commands, positive organizational experience of the centralized complex preparation of national teams of the USSR (base, a technique, coaches, medicine) and modern mechanisms of sports management has allowed Russians to occupy in the lead position in youthful sports and is essential to strengthen positions in professional tennis.

Conclusions. The received knowledge concerning tennis, experience of its development in sports movement can be applied in other kinds of Olympic sports. Given the high cost of training high-class athletes, the state’s interest in raising the level of the national championship, forming relationships with athletes of national teams, which allow them to control their preparation for the main starts - world championships, the Olympic Games, it is advisable to use this mechanism to reorganize and improve the country's sports system, forecasting its trends and development prospects, taking into account already committed and corrected errors. The combination of intellectual resources not only in space (leading experts in the world in various fields: law, economics, organization, sports, etc.), but also in time (historical aspect) can contribute to the construction of an effective generalized concept for the development of sports, its transformation or management them.

Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

References:

About the Womens Circuit (2020): http://www.itftennis.com.

Amis J., T. B. Cornwell (2005) Global sport sponsorship– Oxford: Berg, 2005. – P. 78–131.

ATP Partnership (2020): www.atpworldtour.com/ News/Tennis

Borysova Ðž. V. (2011) Modern professional sports and ways of its development in Ukraine (tennis [text]:monograph. Kiev: Center of Educational Literature. 312 p.

Imas Y., Borysova O., Shlonska O., Kogut I., Marynych V., Kostiukevych V. (2017). Techical and tacticaltraining of gualified Volleyball players by improving attacking actions of players in different roles //Journal of Physical Education and Sport (Jpes), Art 66. P. 441-446.

Imas Y., Borysova O. (2017). Professional tennis: problems and development prospects. Olympic literature, 288.

Kostyukevich V.M., Voronova V.I., Shynkaruk O.A., Borysova O. V. (2016). Basics of research work of undergraduate and graduate students at the institutes. LLC «Nilan-Ltd» 554 p.

Platonov V.N. (2015) System of training athletes in the Olympic sport. General theory and its practical applications: in 2 books. Kiev: Olympic literature. Book 2.752 p.

Platonov V., Bubka S., Bulatova M. (2009). Olympic sport: 2 volumes; under gen. ed. of V. Platonov. - K.: Olympic Literature, 684 p.

Information of the authors

Olha Borysova

Professor, Doctor of Science

Vice-Rector on scientific and pedagogical mattersin of the National University of Ukraine on Physical Education and Sport, UKRAINE, 03150, 1, Fizculturyst., Kyiv, Ukraine

+380676585028

borisova-nupesu@ukr.net

olborysova29@gmail.com

Vol.1/2020/69

‘Contemporary Concerns in Sports Management for New India’

Dr. Benu Gupta, Associate Professor and HOD, Department of Physical Education and Sports Sciences KMC University of Delhi

Abstract:

The healthcare Access and Quality (HAQ) Index reflects the expected length of life is good and enhancement of quality of life through the access to the maintenance of fitness in the body. India already it’s ranking on a global HAQ Index from 153 in 1990 to 145 in 2016, it is still below the global average.

The human capital in India is 20 years which is about 35% to 40% which should have been 60% at-least. Over 61% of all deaths in India are due to Non Communicable Diseases (NCDs) just because of unfit and unhealthy lifestyle. According to World Health Organization India has the highest number of diabetics are 50.8 million by 2025 if not take care of. The number one country on Fitness has 4.71 lac (100 thousand) annual income of individual where India stands.

Our GDP can be improves to 1.4% and human capital can be increased from 20 years to 64 years if we start and focus on Fit People Fit Nation. Plato, the legendary Greek philosopher advocated the need of a healthy mind in a healthy body to generate good leaders of the ideal republic. One of the main strategic objectives of the vision and mission of New India is to increase Human Capital. Bringing all stakeholders on board with true sports men spirit with strategic Sports Management in the country is the one major concern to achieve the vision of New India into reality.

Key Words: Contemporary Concerns, HAQ Index, Human Capital, GDP, Sports Management, New India

Today India is one of the youngest countries in the world with more than 62% of the population in the working age group (15-29 years) and more than 54% of the total population below 25 years of age. About 600 million young people and they are ready to change the world. No matter how poorly they find themselves now, they make up the world’s largest ever cohort of like-minded young people and they see absolutely no reason why the world shouldn’t run by their rules. The effect will be to change our world in ways one can’t imagine; India’s burgeoning youth are the world’s future.

Being into the era of New India and Young India, our major concern is that though our country has improved its ranking on a global healthcare access and quality (HAQ) index from 153 in 1990 to 145 in 2016, yet ranks lower than the global average. India ranked 115 positions in Human Capital Index (HCI) with its score of 0.44 on a scale of 0 to 1 even below the average score of South Asia.

The Healthcare Access and Quality (HAQ) Index reflects the expected length of life is good and enhancement of quality of life through the access to the maintenance of fitness in the body.

The Human Capital Index (HCI) database provides data at the country level for each of the components of the Human Capital Index as well as for the overall index, disaggregated by gender. The index measures the amount of human capital that a child born today can expect to attain by age 18, given the risks of poor health and poor education that prevail in the country where s/he lives.

In 2016, India scored 41.2 points on the healthcare access and quality (HAQ) index created by the Global Burden of Disease study published in the medical journal The Lancet on 23 May. This 16.5 point improvement in 26 years leaves India’s score well below the global average of 54.4. Despite improvement in healthcare access and quality, India lags behind its BRICS peers Brazil, Russia, China and South Africa on the HAQ index, but matches China in the disparity in healthcare access and quality between states.

Within India, the best performers, Goa and Kerala, scored more than 60 points on the HAQ index in 2016, whereas the worst performers, Assam and Uttar Pradesh, scored below 40. This gap between the highest and lowest scores increased from a 23.4 point difference in 1990 to a 30.8 point difference in 2016. (China fared the worst with a 43.5-point difference, ranging from 91.5 in Beijing to 48.0 in Tibet.)

The index is based on 32 causes of death considered preventable with effective medical care.

It assigns a 0-100 score to each of the 195 countries and territories assessed. For the first time, this year’s study analysed healthcare access and quality between regions within seven countries: Brazil, China, England, India, Japan, Mexico and the USA.

List of countries by Human Capital Index 2018 (India and its neighbouring countries)

HAQ Rank (2018)	Country	Score (% of potential reached)
1	Singapore	0.88
46	China	0.67
55	Malaysia	0.62
74	Sri Lanka	0.58
87	Indonesia	0.53
102	Nepal	0.49
106	Bangladesh	0.48
115	India	0.44
133	Afghanistan	0.39
134	Pakistan	0.39

Reference: World Bank - World Development Report 2019, directed by Simeon Djankov and Federica Saliola

Top five countries with highest levels of Healthcare Access and Quality in 2016 are Iceland (rank 1st with score 97.1 points), Norway (2nd with 96.6), Netherland (3rd with 96.1), Luxembourg (4th with 96.0) and Finland and Australia (5th each with 95.9). The global average healthcare access and quality score in 2016 was 54.4, increasing from 42.4 points in 2000. The countries with lowest scores are Central Africa Republic (18.6) Somalia (19.0), Guinea-Bissau (23.4) , Chad (25.4) and Afghanistan (25.9). As far as India and its neighboring countries India lags behind China (48th) Sri lanka (71st) Bangladesh (133rd) and Bhutan (134th) in terms of HAQ Index level. But it is better than Nepal (149th) Pakistan (154th) and Afghanistan (191st) https://currentaffairs.gktoday.in/tags/haq-index-2020

The New India has taken cognizance of that the physical welfare of youth of the country should be one of the main concerns of the state and any departure from the normal standards of well-being at this period of life may have serious consequence. So as India has pinned to the key panacea programmes like Fit India Movement, Khelo India and International Yoga Day.

The Fit India Movement (FIT) is a nation-wide movement in India to encourage people to remain healthy and fit by including physical activities and sports in their daily lives. FIT contributes:

Physical education is vital for the holistic development of young people improving their physical, social and emotional health.
The benefits of physical education reach beyond the impact on physical wellbeing and the value of the educational benefits of sports should not be under-estimated within schools, physical education is an essential component of quality education.
Not only do physical education program promote physical activity, participants in such program are also shown to have improved academic performance under certain conditions.
Sports can also provide health alternatives to deviant behavior such as drug abuse, violence and crime.
The educational impact of physical education includes both the development of motor skills and performance, as well as educational potential.
This refers to the positive relationship between physical activities and educational development.
Sports and physical education is fundamental to the early development of children and youth and the skills learned during play, physical education and sport contribute to the holistic development of young people.

Participation in sports develops following qualities with irrespective of the sex/gender:

Good character
Develops a sense of discipline.
Develops loyalty.
Social control/self-control
Prepares the athletes for life.
Provides opportunities for individual advancement
Sports participation generates physical fitness
Sports participation generates mental alertness
Sports participation is supportive of education achievement
Sports participation promotes nationalism

To achieve broader goals in education and development, sports program must focus on the development of the individual and not only on the development of technical sports skills while the physical benefits of participation in sports are very well known and supported by large volume of empirical evidence. Sports and physical activity can also have positive benefits on education.

Physical activity has benefits beyond improved grades, too:-

Drop-out rates were lower for youth who consistently participated in interscholastic sports.
They build the body and refresh their mind
They train the mind in many virtues.
They teach discipline and team spirit.
Physical education creates in students the sporting spirit
They develop pluck and patience
Sports teach them to take a defeat in a good spirit

The Khelo India Scheme aims to encourage sports all over country, thus allowing the population to harness the power of sports through its cross cutting influence, namely holistic development of children & youth, social integration, gender equality, healthy lifestyle, National pride and economic opportunities.

Player development is all about players learning specific technical skills and beginning to understand tactical play. Talent identification is not based on merely what the player knows at the time of being evaluated but also his ability to learn, develop and progress in his ability to execute his skills. Important talent factors includes Genetics, Environmental, Physical activity, Practice, Nutrition, Psychological variables.

As per United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals, the SDG-3 Good Health and Well Being promoted healthy living on other side the International Olympic Committee (IOC) also promoting active lifestyle through its Olympic Value Education Programme (OVEP 2.0). May it be the Olympic Values Respect Friendship Excellence, Olympic Educational Values Joy of Effort, Fair Play, Balance between Body Will and Mind or the Paralympic Values Determination Courage Inspiration and Equality; all promotes and encourage the Healthy Happy and Fit Human to contribute the Global Family ‘Vasudhaiv Kutumbakam’ To attain the required out put the major concern is to improving Sports Management Skills, Management of Environment, Management of Resources and Management of Activities in our country. We need to live Olympic Values, Fit People Fit Nation and make health and fitness a way of like as in Indian Ancient Culture in modern way by promoting or organising sports , fitness and recreational products. We need to replace I into WE and ILLNESS into WELLNESS.

Our GDP can be improved to 1.4% and human capital can be increase from 20 years 64 years if start and focus on FIT PEOPLE FIT NATION platform, the legendary Greek Philosopher advocated the need of healthy mind in a healthy body to generate good leaders of the ideal republic. One of the main strategic objectives of the vision and mission of NEW INDIA is to increase human capital. Bringing all stake holders on board with true sportsman spirit with strategic sports management in the country is the one major concern to achieve in the version of New Fit India into reality. In YOUNG INDIA NEW INDIA the Power to Change lies with the Youth “Ek Bharat, Shreshtha Bharat” we shall provide opportunities and atmosphere for them to explore and excel.

References:

https://yas.nic.in/

https://fitindia.gov.in/

https://kheloindia.gov.in/

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673617321542

https://www.eui.eu/events/detail?eventid=160686

http://www.healthdata.org/sites/default/files/files/county_profiles/HAQ/2018/India_HAQ

https://www.olympic.org/the-ioc

https://www.un.org/en/

Vol.1/2020/70

Scientific Support for Gaining Winning Edge in Olympics: Nutrition Perspective

Authors: Dr. Kommi Kalpana1 & Shilpa Arya2 , Prof. Gulshan Lal Khanna3*

Affiliation: 1ICMR – National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad;

2.Sports Nutritionist Pt B D University of Health Sciences Rohtak (Haryana)

2 SGT University Gurugram, NCR – Delhi

Olympic sports cover a wide variety of sports than any other major international competitions. India has the scope of winning medals in Hockey, Archery, Shooting, Gymnastics, Weightlifting, Wrestling, Boxing, Tennis, Table Tennis, Badminton, and Athletics in the forthcoming Tokyo Olympics, 2020. In major international competitions, many of our athletes are losing the winning edge by a narrow margin. If concerted efforts are made by proper training and coaching, and continuous support of sports science and medicine, gaining the winning edge probably becomes easy in these sports.

“Appropriate strategies having body compositional periodization, personalized diet plan for adequate macro and micronutrients, hydration and thermoregulation, effective use of supplements, maximizing the training adaptations, gut training, manipulation of circadian rhythm while travelling and avoidance of jetlag, prevention of fatigue and injury, illnesses related to food and water should be adopted by the athletes for targeted peak performance. A single strategy cannot be applied to all the sports events and individualized strategies should be followed through trial and error method during the non-competition period, creating a competitive atmosphere or matches between the players. Scientific support should be provided in the mentioned areas to support the athletes for optimized performance. In this direction research studies should be initiated in these areas to solve the problems and also to provide evidence-based strategies to achieve peak performance for Indian athletes”.

Body Compositional Periodization

Body composition, particularly, the muscle mass has the potential to impact exercise performance. Attaining high muscle mass and low-fat mass is the key to better performance. In a few sports events, body composition has a minor role, whereas in a few sports weight must be certified before the competition. In sports, such as Gymnastics low body composition is required where judging of performance is subjective and influenced by appearance. Some athlete’s (Boxing, Judo etc) shows the desire to participate in the lower weight category and follows dangerous weight cutting practices that include dehydration, crash diets, low or no-calorie intake and usage of diuretics. Athletes should establish ideal body weight and composition for proper physiological functioning and improve performance and health through strength and training protocols. Increasing muscle mass while decreasing body fat is difficult as anabolism and catabolism cannot be achieved simultaneously and should target one at a time. The anabolic state can be stimulated through positive energy, nitrogen and muscle protein balance (Gropper et al., 2018).

Personalized Nutrition

Athletes will be training in a wide range of events which require varying inputs of technique, strength, power, speed and endurance. Each athlete requirement is different, and there is no single diet that meets the needs of all athletes at all times. The athlete should have a customized diet plan to achieve optimum nutrition and performance. The Olympic athlete should approach sports dietitian with their quadrennial or yearly training plan for comprehensive nutrition plan to achieve goals and to support training, performance and recovery. The athlete should consider a diversified menu plan to achieve performance and health benefits. Planning and preparation of varied meals are always a challenge and sports dietitians can help them in identifying appropriate goals and modification of their diets. Creating a diet that meets the athlete’s needs requires greater attention and skills. Food intake should be distributed appropriately as per the sports nutrition guidelines such as event and phase-specific, training load, and pre, during and post-exercise. The goals are the same for pre-competition and pre-training, whereas pre-competition meal must consider gastrointestinal distress. Athletes should concentrate on their fuel and fluid requirements before, during and after exercise. Event-specific performance-enhancing supplements also can be considered to gain the winning edge.

Energy

Optimal energy intake is fundamental to successful athletic performance and good health. Increased or decreased intake may have deleterious effects on sports performance. The present recommended allowances for various Indian sports events are followed throughout the year in the training camps, irrespective of the training phases and cycles. This, in turn leading to body compositional changes, decreased physical fitness and performance. Many Indian coaches, sports nutritionists have observed that the recommended allowances are required only in high training loads and not in all the phases of training as the majority of athletes are prone to positive energy balance. There is a need to revise the currently recommended allowances for better sports performance. Recent research evidence says that not only energy balance, energy availability (EA) is also an important issue for athletes. Monitoring energy availability is crucial for body composition especially, weight category sports. EA may not allow the athlete into the disordered eating zone. Low energy availability (LEA) leads to the female athletic triad (FAT; low energy, amenorrhea, osteoporosis) and relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) which puts low energy availability at the core model, and outlines the negative effects on many physiological systems that include endocrine, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, haematological, skeletal and immune systems and address both male and female athletes. The severity of LEA is very less in International athletes, however, athletes should focus on EA.

Carbohydrates

Optimal dietary carbohydrate intake is crucial for good recovery and optimized glycogen stores. The requirement differs according to intensity and type of training. Athletes requirement may range from 3 - 12 g/ kg/ BW/day of carbohydrates during training phases, depending on the training intensity and differs in competition. Athletes should consume a pre-event meal that consists of 1-4 g of CHO/kg/ BW, 1-4 hours prior is important for events that last longer than 60-90 minutes. The athlete can have a bigger meal, containing more carbohydrates (3-4 g/kg BW) if he has sufficient time (3-4 hours) before an event. This allows for enough time to ensure gastrointestinal comfort before the event. However, if there is not enough time before the event, the athlete can consume 1-2 g/kg BW carbohydrates, 1-2 hours before the event. There is no substantial evidence on positive or negative effects or low-moderate glycaemic index foods before exercise. During and after exercise, the guidelines given in hydration may be followed for muscle glycogen resynthesis. Endurance athletes may adopt the carbo-loading technique for enhanced exercise time. Research should be conducted to know the amount and type of carbohydrate on exercise and impact of low, moderate, high glycemic index and glycemic load foods during competition phase and in different pre-competition phases.

Protein

It is an important nutrient for growth and development of skeletal muscle, anabolic hormonal environment and decreases muscle damage. Greater attention has been given by athletes, coaches and sports professionals. Because of overemphasis on protein, athletes are losing a broader dietary picture which includes adequate energy, carbohydrate and fat intakes. Athletes need to assess their dietary intakes, considering their training protocols to determine the protein requirements, timing and distribution. The recommended daily protein intake ranges from 1.2 to 2g/ kg/BW and excess consumption of proteins is not recommended (ACSM, 2013). However, protein intake can be increased up to 2.7 g/kg/BW to achieve optimized body composition. Moderate amounts of proteins can be included in the diet ingesting 3-4 hrs before the exercise and no guidelines are for specific dosages before exercise and during exercise. During recovery, CHO: protein ration should be 3-4:1 or 0.25 – 0.3 g/kg/BW. Ingestion of amino acids, especially essential amino acids (EAA) 6-20 g along with 30-40 g high glycaemic carbohydrates, immediately or within three hours post-exercise, stimulate muscle protein synthesis (Kerksick et al.,2008). Sports specific and position-specific protein requirements across different training phases should be studied to suggest appropriate intake.

Fat

The daily fat intake should be within the range of 20-35% of total energy intake for effective absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and essential fatty acids and high-fat diets (>35%) or low-fat diets are (<20%) not recommended. However, in high training volumes, it may be increased up to 50% of total energy intake. In body compositional periodization, a fat intake of 0.5-1.0 g/kg BW/day is suggested (ACSM, 2013). Athletes should focus on the consumption of omega 6 and omega 3 fatty acids in the ration of 5:1 for better performance and cognitive function.

Vitamins

Vitamins are essential nutrients for many metabolic processes involved with physical activity, growth of tissue, skeletal muscle function, and general health. Vitamins are involved in RBC production, antioxidant activities, and cellular and energy metabolism. Athletes should consume adequate amounts of vitamins and excess intake may have adverse effects. An increase in exercise duration increases the requirements of vitamins along with energy requirements. However, many athletes do not consume adequate amounts of vitamins through dietary sources which in turn leads to micronutrient deficiencies and reply upon dietary supplements. Majority of the supplements would not have required dosages for athletes and land up consuming higher or lower intake of supplements.

Minerals

Minerals are essential nutrients and are important for most bodily functions. Several minerals such as sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorous, magnesium and chloride have a role in the maintenance of electrolyte and fluid homeostasis. Many minerals constituent of enzymes and iron is central for RBC formation and calcium for bone health. Moderate to vigorous exercise increases the loss of some nutrients through sweat and urine. Some studies have shown mineral deficiencies in athletes due to poor food choices. Female athletes, especially vegetarian athletes are at a higher risk for manifesting iron deficiency anaemia due to losses in menstruation and high training loads.

The athlete should consume a wide variety of nutrient-dense, whole foods to attain adequate nutritional status. Regardless of the estimated prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies, each athlete should assess their key biochemical micronutrients at least twice in a year to avoid declines in micronutrient status. Greater attention is required by the researchers or professionals in this area as there are no proper guidelines or recommended allowances for vitamins and minerals intake.

Hydration Strategies

Each athlete should have an individualized plan for the maintenance of fluid and electrolyte balance. Hydration status is influenced by under various environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity, wind and radiation and also depends on training intensity, volume, time, work and rest cycles. It is very important for an athlete to determine usual fluid losses and successful rehydration strategies. Adequate amounts of fluids, carbohydrates and electrolytes should be consumed before, during and after exercise. A basic plan with adjustments for changing environmental conditions and the stress of competition, helps the athlete to be proactive in preventing and delaying dehydration and other nutrient-related problems. In India, Majority of our athletes are hypo hydrated due to various reasons such as availability and accessibility of water during the practice sessions, ignorance, lack of awareness and knowledge and intentional restriction. The situation is worsening on the first day of the week as much importance is not given for hydration at the weekends.

Tokyo is known to have a very humid subtropical climate with hot Summer (Jun-Sep) and thereby is not very favourable for optimum sports performance. Apart from that, amid the effects of global warming, Tokyo has become an increasingly hot and moderately polluted city. According to a recent study by Kakamu et al., (2017), Tokyo is having a higher WBGT than any of the previous host cities (Rio de Janeiro, London, and Beijing) and is poorly suited for outdoor sporting events. Combination of heat and humidity might lead to impaired thermoregulation, thereby decreased sports performance Proper hydration strategies should be followed by all the Olympic probables. Athletes may be acclimatized to weather conditions two weeks prior to the competitions. To formulate guidelines for maintenance of thermoregulation to prevent exertional heat illnesses such as heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heatstroke and better hydration and fuel strategies, research studies may be conducted.

Pre Exercise: An athlete should consume an adequate amount of fluid before exercise and it should begin at least four hours before the event and the amount depends on the individual 5- 10 ml/kg/BW of fluid in a 2- 4-hour time frame before the exercise. This strategy again differs, if the athlete is not a hydrated and aggressive approach to pre-exercise fluid intake is required. In addition to 5- 10 ml/kg/BW of fluid in a 2-4 hour time frame before the exercise, 3-5 ml/kg/BW of fluid 2 hours prior to the exercise is recommended. To increase thirst responses, pre-exercise source of sodium-containing 20-50mmol/L may be helpful. Gut training is very important if excess volumes are ingested and it should be done prior to the targeted competition.

During Exercise: Intake of fluids during exercise is very important to replace the fluid losses to prevent excessive dehydration (>2% water losses) (Nuccio et al., 2017). Ingestion of Carbohydrate and electrolytes may be beneficial during prolonged exercise under hot and humid conditions to prevent dehydration, fluid and electrolyte losses, and supply of exogenous carbohydrates. Athletes should consider the pre hydration status, clothing, sweat losses, sweat rate, duration of exercise and environmental conditions(Maugham

and Shirreffs, 2008). According to the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), 0.4 to 0.8L/hr of cold fluid (<150C) at frequent intervals should be consumed to avoid hyponatremia. Up to one hour of exercise, water alone can suffice the fluid requirements and If the exercise duration is more than one hour, 30g of single or multiple carbohydrate transporters, and greater than two hours 60 g of single or multiple carbohydrate transporters and if the more than 2.5 hours 90g of multiple carbohydrate transporters are preferred (Jeukendrup, 2014). An athlete who exercises more than one hour requires sodium (20- 50 mmol/L) to avoid hyponatremia.

Post Exercise: Rehydration is crucial to achieving euhydration, restoration muscle glycogen, proteins, sodium and electrolytes. The Athlete should not only focuses on hydration but also on carbohydrate and protein content to replenish the fluid losses, to build and repair muscle tissue and restoration of muscle glycogen. Athletes can consider consuming 1.25 – 1.5 L of fluids/kg body weight lost and beverages containing 1-1.25g of CHO/Kg/BW and 0.25 to 0.3g of protein/Kg/BW (Jeukendrup, 2014). The amount of sodium to be added in the rehydration drink depends on losses during training and daily consumption of sodium.

However, no single strategy is best for all athletes and each athlete should find his or her own personalized plan. An athlete can assess their hydration status regularly using WUT method; water loss, thirst, the colour of urine and thirst (Maugham and Shirreffs, 2008). The athlete should consult a physician in the case of extreme heat illnesses (EHI) such as heat exhaustion, heat stroke and exertional hyponatremia. Research studies on hydration strategies to be followed at different climatic conditions and training protocols and fluid, fuel sources and electrolytes requirements in pre-competition, during competition and post-competition may be conducted on Indian athletes.

Dietary Supplements

There is no proper definition for dietary supplements. According to IOC, 2018, food, food component, nutrient, the non-food compound that is purposefully ingested in addition to the habitually-consumed diet with the aim of achieving specific health and/or performance benefit. According to the consensus statement, supplements are categorized as functional foods: foods enriched with additional nutrients or components outside their typical nutrient composition (e.g., mineral- and vitamin-fortified, as well as nutrient-enriched foods) (b) formulated foods and sports foods: products providing energy and nutrients in a more convenient form than normal foods for general nutrition support (e.g., liquid meal replacements) or for targeted use around exercise (e.g., sports drinks, gels, bars) (c) Single nutrients and other components of foods or herbal products provided in isolated or concentrated forms(d) multi-ingredient products containing various combinations of those products that target similar outcomes. Empirical evidence suggests that 80% of elite athletes use one or more than one supplements (Knapik et al., 2016) and the usage increased 69% (Atlanta Olympics, 1996) to 74 % (Sydney Olympics), 2006 in men as well as women.

A majority of athletes use supplements to correct or prevent the nutrient convenient provision of energy and nutrients around an exercise session, to gain a performance improvement in competitions (Garthe & Maughan, 2018). Following appropriate strategies, a few supplements such as multivitamin and minerals, protein, creatine, carnitine, beta-alanine, nitrate and caffeine may help athletes to meet sports nutrition goals and enhance competition performance. However, athletes should be cautious about adverse effects with their use, lack of standardization of active ingredients, inadvertent doping and contamination Athletes, coaches, and sports managers should check the labels for dope free certification. Research studies with appropriate protocols which are specific to age, gender, training level, nutritional status and validity of the procedure, reproducibility of techniques, cost, availability of equipment, subjective vs objective measures, acute vs chronic, field vs lab, double-blinding of subjects, cross over versus parallel-group should be planned to explore the benefits. Research also should be conducted on the safe use of event-specific supplements such as dosage, timings, duration, true performance, benefits, legality, safety and side effects.

Food Service at Olympic Village

Scientific data on the nutritional habits of athletes participating in the Olympic Games are limited and the existing data reveal that a large proportion of athletes consumed diet having below the recommended sport nutrition guidelines. Changes in training phases and high training loads can suppress appetite and maintain a regular meal schedule, thereby decreasing the intake of adequate calories and nutrient intake on a regular basis. (Wardenaar et al., 2017; Burkhart & Pelly, 2016; Burke et al., 2003). Training for several hours a day leaves little time for preparing and ingesting meals (Wolinsky, 1997). In addition to long training hours, travel is another disruption for athletes for suboptimal food and fluid intake who compete in an international level event. Food intake often depends on local restaurant facilities and their access to familiar foods may be limited. Additionally, eating a typical unfamiliar food for long periods of time may have negative emotional and psychological effects.

The greatest fears of Olympic athletes are foodborne illnesses and gastrointestinal distresses just prior to or during the Olympic Games (Schwellnus et al., 2012). These distresses can prohibit them from participating in the competitions and diminishes performance, thus a safe food supply at the games is a major concern. Maintaining personal hygiene, hygienic food handling, drinking safe water, consumption of hot cooked food is strictly followed to avoid water-borne illnesses and GI distress. Most of the countries, take their own cooks along with contingents to provide safe meals and to achieve optimum nutrition. Establishment of kitchen or food service unit in the Olympic village may serve a dual purpose; the first one is to avoid foodborne illnesses and the second one is to make better food choices. The kitchen which can cater to the needs of or Indian Sportspersons participating in the Olympics 2020should be established in the Olympic village. In-depth interviews of coaches, athletes and sports managers may be conducted through validated questionnaires, identify and solve the problems of athletes participating in International events.

Travelling Athlete

Athletes may encounter various issues associated with national and international travel. Athletes often fly to various countries/continents for international competitions which have a misalignment between the circadian pacemaker and the sleep-wake cycle (jet lag). Athletes can adopt destination sleep time to maximize sleep time and to avoid sleep and emotional disturbances. In case of difficulty in sleeping, athletes are encouraged to take sports medicine expert for medication and sleeping in dim light might be of some help. Exposure to sunlight upon arrival and consumption of melatonin (5mg) six hours before sleep time (Burke et al., 2013). Athletes should avoid alcohol and caffeinated drinks during travel time and increase the intake of fluids and small amounts of carbohydrate-rich foods to avoid hypohydration and constipation. Athletes should familiarize themselves to similar foods/cuisines that are available overseas. Maintaining personal hygiene, hygienic food handling, drinking safe water, consumption of hot cooked food is strictly followed to avoid water-borne illnesses and GI distress. Indian athletes should be encouraged to consume a continental diet once in a week to familiarize themselves and nutritionists/ dietitians should include these foods in prescribing the diet for athletes.

Sleep

Sleep is a crucial factor for performance in competition. Sleep affects all the vital physiological and Psychological factors linked to performance i.e motor function, motivation, focus, memory and learning, stress regulation, recovery, glucose metabolism and injury risk. Many athletes loss sleep prior to competition due to various reasons such as noise, light, anxiety, and nervousness. Evidence shows that sleep deprivation can have significant negative effects on athletic performance (Charest et al., 2020). Coaches and athletes have started realizing the effect of sleep on performance and proper monitoring and regulation of sleep can give the winning edge during competitions. Electronic gadgets which can track the quality and amount of sleep of Olympic probables should be used. A research project can be taken to study the issues with jetlag and sleep for athletes participating in the major competitions.

There are so many unanswered questions pertaining to sleep and performance? Are the high training volumes and loads affecting the sleep cycles? Time zones with adequate and or inadequate nutrient intakes affect sleep? Stress factors and blue light impact sleep? Supplements (Ayurvedic, nutritional)that can enhance sleep especially during travelling, understanding and optimizing the personal sleep needs, effect of body composition, dehydration and improper recovery on sleep, the impact of poor sleep on neuromuscular and physiological functions, improvement of sleep cycles through various techniques such as Yoga Nidra, Pranayama and biofeedback technique etc. Research should be conducted in these directions.

Gut Training

Gastrointestinal emptying can be delayed because of peristalsis in the mid oesophagus and upper part of the small intestine in case large amounts of food or fluids are ingested. Residual food in the stomach causes uncomfortable or irritating side effects during exercise. The gut should be trained and adapted to accommodate increased volumes of food and fluid to avoid adverse effects. It can be trained gradually increasing the tolerable levels of food and fluid during exercise in routine hard training sessions. Athletes can opt for liquids/ semi-liquids before and during exercise which empties faster than solid foods to minimize the adverse effects.

Sports Injury Management

A majority of athletes 5-8% are prone to sports injuries and illnesses during major competitions. Professional and elite sports persons should have physiotherapists to have a full range of motion, prevent and treat injuries and recover in a minimal time duration through a set program for warming up, muscle conditioning, muscle activation and rehabilitation. Research has shown that proper training will lessen the sport-related injuries (Soligard et al., 2017). Therefore to enhance the performance of the sportsperson more focus should be given on providing proper training and rehabilitation program set by a skilled therapist and medical team. Research studies should focus on suitable programs for various training protocols for better recovery and rehabilitation. Personalized nutrition plans also decrease sports injury risk.

Development of Software Applications (App)

An app can be developed that includes the following information for the benefit of an athlete as we all as sports fraternity to use during the Tokyo Olympics, 2020. Location of training place; transport details; athlete details - body composition, nutrient requirements based on training protocol, hydration strategies based on climatic conditions, training, sweat losses etc; event-specific supplements; nutrition information about various cuisines as well as recipes; details of anti-doping-do and don’ts; availability of Indian food at nearby places; rehabilitation centre/training centres in Tokyo; sports counselling; sleep-wake cycle; contact details and Information of other; live telecast of the various sports event -links; live chat and translator etc.

References

Burke LM, Slater G, Broad EM, Haukka J, Modulon S, Hopkins WG. Eating Patterns and Meal Frequency of Elite Australian Athletes. International Journal of Sports Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 2003; 13: 521–538
Charest, Jonathan et al. Sleep and Athletic Performance. Sleep Medicine Clinics, 2020; 15, (1), 41 - 57
Garthe I, Maughan RJ. Athletes and supplements: Prevalence and perspectives. International Journal of Sports Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 2018; 28(2). DOI:10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0429
Huang SH, Johnson K, Andrew CM. The Use of Dietary Supplements and Medications by Canadian Athletes at the Atlanta and Sydney Olympic Games. Clinical Journal of Sports Medicine. 2006; 16 (1): 27-33
IOC Consensus Statement: Dietary Supplements and the High-Performance Athlete. International Journal of Sports Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 2018; 28: 104-125
Ira Wolinsky Nutrition in exercise and sport, 3rd edition, chapter15, 1997;421-43, CRC Press, New York,
Jeukendrup A. A Step Towards Personalized Sports Nutrition: Carbohydrate Intake During Exercise. Sports Medicine. 2014; 44(1): 25–33.
Kerksick C, Harvey T, Stout J, et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: nutrient timing. International Journal of Sports Nutrition. 2008;5:17
Wardenaar F, Brinkmans N, Ceelen I, Rooij BV, Mensink M, Witkamp R, Jeanne De Vries Macronutrient Intakes in 553 Dutch Elite and Sub-Elite Endurance, Team, and Strength Athletes: Does Intake Differ between Sport Disciplines? Nutrients. 2017 ; 9(2): 119.
Maughan RJ, Shirreffs SM. Development of individual hydration strategies for athletes. Int J Sport Nutrition Exercise Metabolism. 2008;18(5):457-72.
Rodriguez NR, Di Marco NM, Langley S, American College of Sports Medicine position stand Nutrition and athletic performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2009; 41:709–731.
Ryan P N, Kelly AB, James MC, Lindsay B B. Fluid Balance in Team Sport Athletes and the Effect of Hypohydration on Cognitive, Technical, and Physical Performance. Sports Medicine. 2017; 47(10): 1951–1982.
Sareen SG, Daniel M G, Phyllis B.A. Plasma Amino Acid Response to Ingestion of L-Amino Acids and Whole Protein. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. 1993.16(2):143–150.

Schwellnus MP, Derman WE, Jordaan E, et al. Elite athletes travelling to international destinations > 5-time zone differences from their home country have a 2–3-fold increased risk of illness. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2012; 46:816–821.
Soligard T, Steffen K, Palmer D, et al. Sports injury and illness incidence in the Rio de Janeiro 2016 Olympic Summer Games: A prospective study of 11274 athletes from 207 countries. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2017; 51:1265-1271.

Vol.1/2020/71

Thermoregulation and Moderate Intensity Exercising for Overweight Men

Dr. Khaled Khalifa Dougman

Sport Science specialist Abu Dhabi Sports Council, United Arab Emirates

It is known that obese individuals should exercise at low to moderate intensity to oxidize high fat during the active period. Factors such as body composition, resting metabolic rate and gender related to the heat production, are significant in the treatment and prevention of obesity. It’s hypothesized that exercising at moderate intensity, at 30 oC, would have a significant effect on heart rate (HR), energy expenditure, use of body fuel and fat utilization. The aim of this study investigated the physiological response during moderate exercise for 30 minutes for overweight males, in a hot environment (30 oC) and a thermoneutral temperature (18oC). Nine overweight men cycled moderately for 30 minutes at 18oC and 30oC. The results of the study showed no significant difference on the HR, body fuel use (which is expressed by energy expenditure and % fat to carbohydrate) used for overweight individuals during exercise at moderate intensity at the two different temperatures.

Key words Overweight, moderate intensity, body composition, hot temperature, thermoneutral, Environment.

Vol.1/2020/72

Sport Education- Need to Redesign, Realign and Restructure

-by Dr. Nayana Nimkar,

Director,

Symbiosis School of Sports Sciences, Pune

One of the best ways to prepare for the future is to engage in a lively and spirited dialogue about the changes to come. The pace of change has been stunning, and it is not slowing down. It is time that we take a hard look at the generation currently coming into adulthood, because they represent our future. We know that they love sports, but they have an entirely different approach to engaging with games. They will be the first generation to fully embrace the new worlds of virtual and augmented reality. They are tech savvy, hyper-connected and easily bored. To stay relevant, we must understand the tastes and motivations of this growing group of millennials.

Sports professionals have always been interested in data, and the amount of data that is being collected on teams and on the performance and health of individual athletes is growing exponentially.

Advances in the application of technology, where computers autonomously harvest mountains of data to find hidden patterns, is already helping change the way coaches make decisions, from recruitment to on-field strategy to avoid season-ending injuries and so on. The Future of Sports Report predicts the use of -

Artificial Intelligence…. Artificial intelligence subcategories machine learning and deep learning will process vast data streams to enhance coaches’ game strategies and real-time decision making.
Bioinformatics and Health…. Teams will build genetic performance profiles to personalize each player’s nutrition and fitness protocols. • Pathogen transfer in stadiums is inevitable.
Digital Manufacturing…. 3D printing and manufacturing will drastically reshape the sports supply chain.
Global Smartphone Canopy…. People will be connected to the internet, representing several billion new sports fans joining the global marketplace.
Sensors…. Sensors are proliferating in jerseys, athletic wear and equipment, creating exponentially growing data sets for AI systems to process, granting unprecedented insights into performance.
Immersive Visual Computing…. Augmented reality: The world becomes an infinite display, allowing teams and fans to access and use new forms of visual data during practice and games.

Need and Evolution of Sports Sciences

Sports Sciences is thus a relatively young discipline, which reflects the seriousness with which sports and fitness is approached today. It is a multidisciplinary subject, drawing on fields such as physiology, biomechanics, nutrition and dietetics, management etc.

The nature of the subject necessitates that the best way to educate sports scientists would be in a formal setting where highest quality of knowledge dissemination and innovative research would be encouraged. The ability to analyse, evaluate, and effectively use creativity in a real-world setting requires training and laboratory work. This can happen only through establishing either schools of sports sciences or independent departments in Universities as units offering academic programs in the sports science discipline. The highlights of the programs would be-

The expertise and scientific application that students would gain in this subject could be applied at the highest levels within the sport, health and fitness areas.
The Sport Science practicum would provide essential workplace experience, enabling integration of theoretical concepts with professional practice in a wide range of disciplines.
The practicum program would also provide extensive interaction with other professionals in the chosen path of study.
Unique learning experience with cutting-edge equipment and laboratories would assist the students to research and translate this research into practice (evidence-based practice).

It is opportune time for all of us to look ahead and redesign, realign and restructure our entire sport education to match up to the demands of time. Promoting excellence and empowerment through quality education should be the main thrust for developing professionals in this field. These are exciting times and together we can bring about a revolution in sports education.

References:

(2019). Retrieved from https://futureof.org/wp-content/uploads/The-Future-of-Sports-2016-Report.pdf

(2019). Retrieved from https://www.asoif.com/sites/default/files/download/future_of_global_sport.pdf

Vol.1/2020/73

A CRITICAL STUDY ON THE ANALYSIS OF FITNESS COMPONENTS AMONG SMOKING AND NON SMOKING ATHLETES

P. RAVI KUMAR Head, Department of Physical Education National Institute Of Technology, Warangal – 506004 (A.P.) India

INTRODUCTION

The major health risk related to cigarette smoking is lung cancer and the “keryberg group” tumors are common among cigarette smokers (Chan, 1977). Several studies in India, Phillippines and China have shown that cigarette smoking may be regarded as a significant risk factor for the development of ischemic heart disease (Gupta, 1980), myocardial infraction (Jayant, et. Al. 1983), ischemic and hemorrhagic cerebrovascular diseases, which accounted for approximately 150,000 (7%) of all deaths in the United States in 2002 (Surgeon General Report, 2002), an increase in blood pressure, heart rate, cardiac output, myocardial contractile force, and velocity of contraction with gradual return to baseline levels approximately 15 minutes after smoking (Rosenberg et. Al. 1983). The above literature indicate that smoking is hazardous to health and may also have effect on physical fitness of athletes. Among several physical fitness measures, the standard field tests like, 6 pound medicine ball put, Trunk Hip Flexibility Test, Bent Knee Sit Ups (1 min) test and 12 minutes Run/Walk Test (Cooper’s) were conducted among Non-smoking and smoking athletes which are indices of Muscle Strength, Flexibility, Muscular Endurance and Circulo-Respiratory Endurance.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to measure the impact of cigarette smoking on sportsman with special reference to some physical fitness and related physiological components. The investigator has chosen athletes from colleges of Physical Education.

SIGNIFICANCE

The present investigation results might contribute a lot and might help athletes and concerned National bodies to take cognizance of the present work and it would be of great relevance to know whether an athlete’s peak performance is subtly undermined or marred by tobacco smoking.

HYPOTHESIS

Cigarette smoking on sportsmen with special reference to some physical fitness and related physiological components may or may not have any significant impact.

METHOD

Smoking and Non Smoking athletes

Healthy athletes who’s are non-alcoholics, non-drug addicts, who consistently oblige for conducting standard field tests were chosen after careful personal enquiry. The following groups were selected for studying the effect of smoking on athletes between the age groups 19-21, 22-24, 25-27, 28-30 years. Studies were conducted in S.K. University College, Anantapur, S.R.R. Govt. College of Physical Education, Gopenpalem, College of Physical Education, Inkollu; Zion College of Physical Education, Cuddapah; Rayalaseema College of Physical Education; Proddatur and Gnana Bharathi College of Physical Education, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India.

The standard field tests like, 6 pound medicine ball put, Trunk Hip flexibility test, Bent knee sit ups (1 min) test and 12 minutes Run/test were conducted among Non-smokers and smoking athletes at 7 am.

One eight five non-smoking subjects and 122 smoking subjects were chosen for the study. The number of smoking athletes available were only 122 where as the non-smoking athletes available were one hundred and eight five. Due to elimination of non-obliging smokers, alcoholics and drug addicts the number chosen had to be limited to 122. The body weights of athletes of different age groups chosen represented approximately matching weights (+ or – 50 – 10 Kg) were taken into consideration Less weight and over weight sports were eliminated from testing.

Six pound medicine ball put, Trunk Hip Flexibility Test, Bent Knee sit ups (1 min) test and 12 minutes Run Test which are standard tests and are described by Clarke (1973), are indices of Arm Shoulder Girdle Strength, Flexibility, Muscular Endurance and Circulo – Respiratory Endurance.

Appropriate statistical treatment was administered. The statistical procedures includes, calculation of mean standard deviation, application of student T-test, and ANOVA (Graffin, 1982).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The standard field test like 6 pound medicine ball put, trunk hip flexibility test, Bent Knee sit ups (1 min) test, 12 minutes Run/Walk test with respect to involvement of Physical Fitness components like strength, flexibility, muscular endurance, circulo respiratory endurance, has already been mentioned in the method section and may be referred. These tests were conducted among smoking and non-smoking athletes. Their age ranged from 19 to 30 years and were divided into 4 age groups. Namely 19-22, 22-24, 25-27 and 28-30 years. Thus performance scores values were compared among athletes who are non-smokers and smokers and also in relation to age. It should be noted that ageing also likely to effect the above said test scores.

The standard field test which are indices of Arm shoulder girdle strength, Trunk Hip-Flexibility, Muscular Endurance, Circulo – Respiratory Endurance, showed a significant decrease in their performance score values, among smoking athletes when compared to non-smoking athletes. The percentage decrease in the test score values ranged from 24-14% to 81.68%.

The details of percentage decrease in various Physical Fitness components from 19-30 years, in smoking athletes as compared to non-smoking athletes are: Arm and shoulder girdle strength – 24.14% to 29.10%, Flexibility – 51.55% to 81.65%, Muscular Endurance – 41% to 45.35%, Circulo Respiratory Endurance – 36.45% to 42.14%.

A slight decrease in Strength, Flexibility, Muscualr Endurance, Circulo Respiratory Endurance with an increase in age among athletes has been observed. However, the decrease in Strength, Flexibility, Muscular Endurance, Circulo Respiratoryj Endurance among smoking athletes when compared no Non-smoking athletes was very significant.

There are no significant difference with in the different age groups of smoking athletes in Strength, Flexibility, Muscular Endurance, Circulo-Respiratory Endurance.

In non-smoking athletes there are significant difference with in the different age groups in Strength, Flexibility, Muscualr Endurance, Circulo-Respiratory Endurance.

Further, among the non-smoking athletes between the age groups of 19-21 and 22-24 years in Flexibility, Muscular Endurance, Circulatory Endurance, the results showed in-significant value even at 0.05 level.

The above results revealed that smoking habit among athletes impairs significant the strength, flexibility, muscular endurance, circulo-respiratory endurance of athletes.

The following causes might be attributed for impairment in muscle strength and flexibility Circulo Respiratory Endurances, Muscular Endurance among smokers. Nicotine is know to cause damage to vascular endothelium, each cigarette contains nineteen different poisons which get into blood stream making heart’s action difficult, thus decreasing cardio efficiency (WHO report, 1979). Thus the cardiac insufficiency and respiratory system damage visualized above might be responsible for poor performance among smokers.

Nitocine induced peripheral vaso constriction, and consequent reduction in blood flow to the distal parts of the limbs might exaccelerate the effect of peripheral vascular diseases, which might be affecting the nerve and muscle system. (Gershon, et a. 1979). Nicotine also produces neuro muscular blockade by receptor desensitization (Goodman and Gilman, 1970) and the neuromuscular blockade causing decrement in muscle potential and tension (Nanda Kumar et. al. 1989, Pagala et. al. 1990) is also a well established fact. There is a possibility that the inhalation of carbon monoxide during smoking which has an affinity for hemoglobin 200 times greater than that of oxygen, might causing reduction of oxygen carrying capacity of the blood consequently effecting athletic performance.

CONCLUSIONS

The standard field tests like, 6 pound medicine ball put, Trunk Hip Flexibility test, Bent Knee sit ups (1 min) tests, and 12 minutes Run/Walk Test were conducted among non-smoking and smoking athletes.
Theses standard field tests which are indices of Arm Shoulder Girdle Strength, Flexibility, Muscular Endurance and Circulo-Respiratory Endurance showed a significant decrease in the performance score values among athletes who are smokers compared to non-smoking athletes.
The details of percentage decrease in various physical fitness components from 19-30 years, in smoking athletes as compared to non-smoking athletes are; Arm and shoulder girdle strength 24.14% to 29.10%, Flexibility 51.55% to 81.65%; Muscular Endurance 41% to 45.35%, Circulo Respiratory Endurance 36.45% to 42.14%.
A slight decrease in Strength Flexibility, Muscular Endurance, Circulo-Respiratory Endurance with an increase in age among athletes has been observed.
It is suggested that in the interest of Nation and World of athletes that smoking habit have to be desisted as smoke chemicals adversely affect the physical fitness of the athletes.

TABLE – 1

Variation of Mean, Standard Deviation and Percent Decrease

(Six Pound Medicine Ball Put: Arm and Shoulder Gridle Strength)

Sl. No.	Athletes Age	Non Smokers		Smokers		% Decrease over non-smoking athletes
Sl. No.	Athletes Age	Mean	Standard Deviation	Mean	Standard Deviation	% Decrease over non-smoking athletes
1	19-21 Yrs	10.93 (26)	0.69	7.97 (23)	0.55	27.10
2	22-24 Yrs	13.11 (91)	1.43	9.95 (46)	0.82	24.14
3	25-27 Yrs	12.71 (47)	0.47	9.09 (36)	0.59	28.48
4	28-30 Yrs	12.00 (21)	0.60	8.51 (17)	0.54	29.10

Note: Number of subjects is given in parentheses. Standard field tests performance score values as described by C.H. Harrison (1966)

TABLE – 2

Variation of Mean, Standard Deviation and Percent Decrease

(Trunk-Hip Flexibility Test: Flexibility)

Sl. No.	Athletes Age	Non Smokers		Smokers		% Decrease over non-smoking athletes
Sl. No.	Athletes Age	Mean	Standard Deviation	Mean	Standard Deviation	% Decrease over non-smoking athletes
1	19-21 Yrs	20.19 (26)	1.47	9.78 (23)	2.24	51.55
2	22-24 Yrs	18.27 (91)	1.69	6.11 (46)	2.29	66.57
3	25-27 Yrs	14.38 (47)	1.51	2.64 (36)	3.30	81.69
4	28-30 Yrs	13.09 (21)	1.69	2.71 (17)	3.36	79.34

Note: Number of subjects is given in parentheses. Standard field tests performance score values as described by C.H. Harrison (1966)

TABLE – 3

Variation of Mean, Standard Deviation and Percent Decrease

(Bent – Knee Sit – Ups (1 minute) Test: Muscular Endurance)

Sl. No.	Athletes Age	Non Smokers		Smokers		% Decrease over non-smoking athletes
Sl. No.	Athletes Age	Mean	Standard Deviation	Mean	Standard Deviation	% Decrease over non-smoking athletes
1	19-21 Yrs	46.65 (26)	1.62	27.48 (23)	1.25	41.10
2	22-24 Yrs	43.07 (91)	2.20	25.37 (46)	1.09	41.09
3	25-27 Yrs	39.83 (47)	1.43	23.44 (36)	1.14	41.14
4	28-30 Yrs	33.48 (21)	2.42	18.29 (17)	2.16	45.35

Note: Number of subjects is given in parentheses. Standard field tests performance score values as described by C.H. Harrison (1966)

TABLE – 4

Variation of Mean, Standard Deviation and Percent Decrease

(12 Minute Run Test: Circulo-Respiratory Endurance)

Sl. No.	Athletes Age	Non Smokers		Smokers		% Decrease over non-smoking athletes
Sl. No.	Athletes Age	Mean	Standard Deviation	Mean	Standard Deviation	% Decrease over non-smoking athletes
1	19-21 Yrs	2908.08 (26)	273.27	1711.30 (23)	200.46	41.15
2	22-24 Yrs	2652.31 (91)	287.77	1534.67 (46)	345.08	42.14
3	25-27 Yrs	2325.53 (47)	244.99	1429.44 (36)	231.26	38.53
4	28-30 Yrs	2075.53 (21)	207.88 (17)	1318.82	168.52	36.45

Note: Number of subjects is given in parentheses. Standard field tests performance score values as described by C.H. Harrison (1966)

TABLE – 5

Table showing F-Ratio and results of LSD at 0.05 and 0.01 levels for standard Field Tests Testifying Physical Fitness among Smoking Athletes belonging to different age groups.

Sl No.	Test Items	F-Ratio	19-21 & 22-24 Yrs	19-21 & 25-27 Yrs	19-21 & 28-30 Yrs	22-24 & 25-27 Yrs	22-24 & 28-30 Yrs	25-27 & 28-30 Yrs
1	Six Pound Medicine Ball Put Test (Arm and Shoulder Girdle Strength) (cm)	2.19	--	--	--	--	--	--
2	Trunk-Hip Flexibility test (Flexibility) (cm)	6.18	--	--	--	--	--	--
3	Benk-Knee Sit-Ups (1 Min) Test (Muscular Endurance) (No.)	4.18	--	--	--	--	--	--
4	12 Min. Run/Walk Test (Circulo – Respiratory Endurance) (mts)	1.93	--	--	--	--	--	--

* Significant at 0.05 Level

** Significant at 0.01 level

TABLE – 6

Table showing F-Ratio and results of LSD at 0.05 and 0.01 levels for standard Field Tests Testifying Physical Fitness among Non Smoking Athletes belonging to different age groups.

Sl No.	Test Items	F-Ratio	19-21 & 22-24 Yrs	19-21 & 25-27 Yrs	19-21 & 28-30 Yrs	22-24 & 25-27 Yrs	22-24 & 28-30 Yrs	25-27 & 28-30 Yrs
1	Six Pound Medicine Ball Put Test (Arm and Shoulder Girdle Strength) (cm)	28.49**	9.00**	6.64**	3.74**	2.12*	3.74**	2.00*
2	Trunk-Hip Flexibility test (Flexibility) (cm)	42.64**	1.85	7.75**	7.93**	5.89**	7.92**	1.82
3	Benk-Knee Sit-Ups (1 Min) Test (Muscular Endurance) (No.)	23.31*	1.47	3.82**	7.24**	3.38**	7.43**	4.54**
4	12 Min. Run/ Walk Test (Circulo–Respiratory Endurance) (mts)	17.77*	1.42	4.48**	5.77**	4.35**	5.69**	2.28*

* Significant at 0.05 Level

** Significant at 0.01 level

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Griffin, S., “Statistics-Methods and Applications”, Holt, Rinehart and Winston and Go., New York, (1982)
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Jayanth, K. et. al., “World Smoking and Health”, 34:163, (1980)
Karpovich, P.V., “Physiology of Muscular Activity”, 5th Ed. W.B. Sunders Company, Longon, pp. 262-263, (1959)
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Pagala, M.K.D., Nanda Kumar, N.V., Venkata Chari, S.A.T., Namba, T., and Grob, D., “Response of Intercostal Muscle Biopsies from Normal Subjects and Patients with Myostheniaa Gravis”, Muscle and Nerve, 13, 1012-1022, (1990).
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Rosenberg, L., Miller, D.R., and Kaufman, D.W., “Myocardial infraction in women under 50 years of age”, JAMA 250: 2801-2806, (1983)
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WHO Technical Report Series, No. 636 (1979)

Vol.1/2020/74

EFFECT OF PLYOMETRIC WITH PILATES EXERCISES ON SELCETD SKILL RELATED PERFORMANCE VARIABLES AMONG VOLLEYBALL PLAYERS

**Dr.P.P.S.PAUL KUMAR

Dean, BOS Chairman & Director of Physical Education & Sports Sciences, ANU

INTRODUCTION

Sports in the narrow sense can be defined as competitive activity, an active factor in physical education, which has taken shape mainly in the field of physical culture of a society, as a special sphere of identifying and comparing between potentials in a united form. Sports is worldwide phenomenon today, it has occupied a prominent place both in the physical as well as in the moral culture of a society. Sports allows the sportsmen to below off tension and to forget the problems for a while and also to go out and have good time no matter whatever pressures they may be under in their life (Jannes & Dobbins, 1984).

Sports Training

Sports training refer to a systematic process of repetitive progressive exercise, having ultimate goal of improving athletic performance. Training involves constriction of exercise programme to envelop an athlete for a particular athletic event. Thus, increasing skill and energy capacities take equal consideration. Through training the athlete is conditioned and is modeled, not only to match, but more importantly to over pass the special demand of the chosen sport, and the specific requirements of the athletic performance (Bompa, 1996).

Plyometric training

Volleyball is dominated by techniques which require two-foot takeoff jumps. Nevertheless, the speed of movement and the suddenness of the actions have forces Volleyball players to use single foot takeoff jumps during serves, lifts, spikes, blocks and other techniques. Exercise involving two foot takeoff jumps mainly dominate training techniques.

Pilate’s exercises

Pilates has become a popular form of exercise for conditioning and rehabilitation. Pilates has similarities with spinal stabilization training, both aiming to normalize spinal motor control and emphasizing Transversus abdominis (TrA) and Obliqueintern us abdominis (OI) recruitment (Richardson et al., 2004; Rydeard
et al., 2006).Transverses abdominis and OI are activated during Pilates exercises when performed by experienced practitioners (Endleman & Critchley, 2008). Pilates training is claimed to increase activation of TrA and OI during athletic or daily living activities, which is said to improve sporting performance and reduce back pain (Muscolino & Cipriani, 2004).

Volleyball

William G. Morgan invented Volleyball as a recreational activity to some business people. William Morgan was the physical director of the young men Christian association at Holyoke. He was later known as the father of Volleyball. This game spread over the world war period. YMCA of Madras introduced volley ball game in India, during the early part of the 20th century. India took membership in Asian Volleyball federation in the year of 1949.

Pre requisites for a Volleyball Players

The important re requisites for a good performance in Volleyball are the skills related to physical, psychomotor and psycho-physiological factors.

Abilities and Skills

Abilities and skills play an important role in physical education. Fleshman (1964) states the term ability refers to a more general trait of individual which has been inferred from certain response consistencies in certain kinds of task. These traits are long lasting and it is very difficult to change them. The development process of certain abilities takes place mainly during childhood. There are certain abilities like colour vision that depend more genetic than on any other factor.

Statement of the Problem

The purpose of this study was to find out the effect of Plyometric training with Pilates exercises on selected motor ability physiological and Skill related Performance Variables among Volleyball Players.

The Objectives of the Study

To determine the effect of Plyometric training on selected motor ability physiological and skill related performance variables among Volleyball players.
To determine the effect of Plyometric training with Pilates exercise on selected motor ability physiological and skill related performance variables among Volleyball players.

Delimitations

study was delimited to the following aspects.

The study was delimited sixty Volley ball players from Krishna district.
The study was delimited to intercollegiate level male Volleyball players
The age was ranged from 18-23years.
The duration of the experimental period was restricted to 12 weeks and the training was given for 3 session per week on alternate days
The selected skill related variables were delimited to volleying ability.

Limitations

The study was limited to the following aspects
Certain factor like rational habits, life style, daily routine, diet and climatic conditions were not taken in to account in study.
The subjects had engaged themselves in different type of game and the effect of these activities on their playing ability would not be controlled.
The subject body type and economic status of the students were not being taken in to consideration.
The previous experience of the subjects in the field of sports and games which might influence the training and data collection was not considered.
Socio-economic back ground was not taken into consideration
No motivational techniques which will here an effect on the result of the study were used during the testing and this was considered as a limitation.

METHODOLOGY

Methodology is a branch of logic concerned with the principles of reasoning. It is concerned with scientific and philosophical enquiry, through a particular science, a system of method. This helps a person involved in a process to set a definite procedure in investigating through and orderliness in action, through and handling of ideas.

In this chapter, the selection of subjects, selection of variables, selection of test, instrument reliability, reliability of data, subject reliability, experimental design, pilot study, orientation of subjects, collection of data, test administration, training programme and statistical technique employed for analyzing the data have been described.

Selection of Subjects

The purpose of the study was to find out the effect of Plyometric training and Plyometric with Pilates exercises on selected skill related performance variables among Volleyball players. volleying ability for selected male Volleyball player. To achieve the purpose of this study, 60 inter collegiate male Volleyball player were selected randomly from in an around Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh, their age ranged from 18-23 years. They were divided into three equal groups and each group consists of 20 subjects. Group A underwent Plyometric training; Group B underwent Plyometric with Pilates exercise for three days per week for 12 weeks on alternative days and Group C acted as a control who did not involve any special training apart from the regular curricular activities. Due to some unavoidable problem one subject dropped from the middle of the combined Plyometirc with Pilates exercises programme (n = 19).

Selection of Variables

To determine the effect of Plyometric with Pilates exercises on selected skill related performance variables among Volleyball players. The independent dependent variables such as

Independent variables

Plyometric training
Plyometric with Pilates exercises

Dependent variables:-Skill Related Variables

Volleying ability

Selection of Tests

The purpose of the study to find out the effect of Plyometric training with Pilates exercise on selected skill related performance variables among Volleyball players., the dependent variables such as volleying ability was selected on state level men Volleyball players. The researcher had consulted with the experts, physical educational personnel, reviewed various literatures accessible to him and selected the following test items, which were standardized, appropriate and ideal for the selected variables. The criterion variables are presented in table 1.

Table – I: Selection of variable, test and unit of measurement

Sl. No.	Variables	Test	Unit of measurement
1	Volleying ability	Russell- Lange	In numbers

Experimental Design

The random group design was used as experimental design. The purpose of the study was to find out the effect of Plyometric training Plyometric with Pilate’s exercises on selected skill related performance. For this purpose sixty male Volleyball players were selected at random as subject from in an around Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh. They were divided into three groups equally of twenty subjects each. Group ‘A’ underwent Plyometric training; Group ‘B’ underwent Plyometric with Pilates exercise and Group ‘C’ act as control group. The training was given three days per week alternate days for twelve weeks.

Collection of data

At the end of the treatment period, as post test, the subjects belong to the treatment groups namely Plyometric training group, Plyometric with Pilates exercise group and control group were tested on criterion variables volleying ability as such in the pre-test of the same. The collected data was processed with appropriate statistical tool and the detailed procedure of the same is given below.

Statistical Procedure

The data collected from experimental Group I, Group II and control group prior to and after completion of the training period were statistically analyzed for significant difference if any, by applying analysis of covariance (ANCOVA).

The pre-test and post-test means of experimental Group I, II and the control groups were tested for significance by applying analysis of variance (ANOVA). After eliminating the influence of pretest, the adjusted post-test mean of experimental groups and the control groups were tested for significance by using analysis of covariance (ACOVA). All the data were analyzed using computer with SPSS statistically package. The level of confidence was fixed at 0.05 level for significance as the number of subjects were limited and also because the selected variables might fluctuate due to various extraneous factors as mentioned in the limitation.
In addition to this Scheffes post-hoc test was employed when the ‘F’ ratio of the adjusted post test mean was significant to find out the paired mean difference, if any among the group the groups for each variables separately.

Table -I

Analysis of covariance for Pre test and Post test Data on volleying ability of Control group and Experimental groups

PTG

PTPEG

Sources of variance

Sum
of square

Mean square

‘F’ ratio

Pre-test

Mean

S.D.

22.00

1.29

21.42

1.38

21.05

1.60

9.16

115.58

4.58

2.06

2.22

Post-test

Mean

S.D.

24.45

1.70

24.97

1.07

20.00

1.68

293.49

129.89

146.74

2.32

63.26*

Adjusted

Post-test

Mean

24.45

24.94

20.00

226.73

46.08

113.36

0.83

135.28*

*Significant at 0.05 level.

Table- I shows that the pre test means value on volleying ability for Plyometric training group (PTG), Plyometric training with Pilates exercise program (PTPEG) and control group (CG) are 22.00, 21.42 and 21.05 respectively. The obtained ‘F’ ratio value 2.22 for the pre test mean is lesser than the required table value 3.16 for 2 & 56 degrees of freedom at 0.05 level of significance. This reveals that there is no significant difference between the control and experimental groups on volleying ability before the commencement of the experimental training. It is inferred that the selection of subject for the three groups are successful.

The post test means on volleying ability of the Plyometric training group (PTG), Plyometric training with Pilates exercise group (PTPEG) and control group (CG) are 24.45, 24.97 and 20.00 respectively. The obtained ‘F’ ratio value 63.26 for the post test mean is greater than the required table value 3.16 for 2 &56 degrees of freedom at 0.05 level of significance. It discloses that there is a statistically significant difference between the control and experimental groups on volleying ability after the experimental training.

The adjusted post test means on volleying ability of the Plyometric training group (PTG), Plyometric training with Pilates exercise group (PTPEG) and control group (CG) are 24.45, 24.94 and 20.00 respectively. The obtained ‘F’ ratio value 135.28 for the adjusted post test mean is greater than the required table value 3.17 for 2 & 55 degrees of freedom at 0.05 level of significance. It reveals that there is significant change on volleying ability as a result of the experimental training. Since the result revealed that there is a significant difference, the hypothesis is accepted. Since the ‘F’ ratio was found significant, the scheffe’s test was applied Post-hoc test to find out the paired mean differences if any and it was presented in table II.

Table -II

The Scheffe’s test for the differences between Paired mean of groups on volleying ability

PTG	PTPEG	CG	MD	CI
24.45	24.94		0.49*	0.206
24.45	-	20.00	4.45*	0.203
-	24.94	20.00	4.94*	0.206

*Significant at 0.05 level.

The above II table shows that the significance differences between adjusted paired mean values on volleying ability for Plyometric training group (PTG), Plyometric with Pilates exercise group (PTPEG) and control groups (CG). The mean differences between the Plyometric training group (PTG) and Plyometric training with Pilates exercise program group (PTPEG) are 0.49, which is significant at 0.05 level of confidence interval. In the comparison between the Plyometric training group (PTG) and control group (CG) the difference is 4.45, which is significant at 0.05 level of confidence interval. The mean differences between the Plyometric training with Pilates exercise group (PTPEG) and control group (CG) is 4.94, which is significant at 0.05 level of confidence interval. This indicates that there was a significant difference among three groups on volleying ability ability. However the improvement was in favor of Plyometric training with Pilates exercise group.

The comparison of pre post and adjusted post test mean values on volleying ability ability for Plyometric training group, Plyometric training with Pilates exercise group and control group are graphically presented in figure -10

Figure 1 : Mean score of pre test, post test and Adjusted post test of Plyometric training group (PTG), Plyometric training with Pilates exercise group (PTPEG) and control group (CG) on volleying ability.

Discussion on Hypotheses

In the hypotheiseis researcher stated that there might be a significant improvement in selected skill related performance variables among Volleyball player due to Plyometric training and compound training programme. The results and discussion on hypothesis showed that:

It was hypothesized that there would be significant differences due to the influence of Plyometric training with Pilates exercise on slected skill related performance variables such as service ability and volleying ability when compared with control group. Hence the researcher sixth hypothesis accepted.
There was significant difference between Plyometric training and combined Plyometric with Pilates exercise on volleying ability. Hence the researcher seventh hypothesis accepted. Where as in case of breath holding time its show no significant difference between Plyometric training and combined Plyometric with Pilates exercise, hence the research hypotheses is rejected.

Discussion on Findings

Volleying Ability

The result of the present study indicated that volleying ability has significantly improved by Plyometric training and combined Plyometric with Pilates exercise. The result of the study was alien with the following studies conducted by Gortsila et al., (2013) recommended that ten weeks of different training surfaces (hard or sand surface) significantly improve the overhead and forearm passing accuracy of Volleyball players. Nessic et al., (2013) concluded that Volleyball training significantly improve the volleying ability of Volleyball players. Natarajan (2013) suggested that isolated and combined Swiss ball and flexibility training significantly improve the skill performance of Volleyball players. Sharada (2014) recommended that specific weight training programme significantly improve the skill performance ability of the Volleyball players

Conclusions

On the basis of the interpretation of data, the following conclusions were drawn from the study.

Volleying ability was significantly improved by the Plyometric trainingand Plyometric training with Pilates exercise group when compared with control group.
Combined Plyometric training with Pilates exercise group is better than the isolated Plyometric training group on Volleying ability.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anderson B (2000) Introduction to Pilates-based rehabilitation north Phys. Therapy Clinic North America, 9:395-410
Arnold Schwarzenegger and bill Robins (1981) Arnolds body building for men Fireside Book, (New York ; Simon and Schuster, inc.,) p.13.

Chaterjee (2003) “Viva Voce on Medical Physiology (Practical)”Academic Publisher

Clarke Harrison H. (1967) Application to Measurement to Health and Physical Education (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- Hall Inc., P.290.

Hardayalsingh, (1995) Science of sports training, New Delhi: D.V.S. Publishers

Harrison Clarke (1996) Application of measurement to health and physical education, p.174

Mathew, Donald k., (1973), Measurement in Physical Education, Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company.

Matveyev, L (1981) fundamental of Sports Training, Moscow: Progress Publishers, p.11

Movement Therapies, 8:15-24.

Vol.1/2020/75

Assessment of age-related changes in core stability and postural health

Erika Zemková

1 Department of Sports Kinanthropology, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia

2 Sports Technology Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Slovakia

Many sports and everyday activities require good core stability and effective postural response mechanisms. Therefore their assessment should be considered an integral part of physical fitness testing in athletes as well as general population.

Recently, a Long-Term Sport Diagnostic Model was proposed (Zemková, 2014; Zemková, 2015a), which was afterwards modified into following age-related stages: Stage 1 (6 to 9 years), Stage 2 (10 to 14 years), Stage 3 (15 to 18 years), Stage 4 (19 to 24 years), Stage 5 (25 to 44 years), Stage 6 (45 to 64 years), and Stage 7 (65+ years) (Zemková, 2018a; Zemková, 2019a). This model includes also tests of postural and core stability in particular age periods (Table 1).

Table 1 Postural and core stability tests within seven stages of a Long-Term Sport Diagnostic Model

Stages 1 - 3	Stages 4 - 6	Stage 7
	Static balance tests
Task-oriented balance tests (Visually-guided CoM target-matching task)		Task-oriented balance tests (Visually-guided CoM tracking task)
	Perturbation-based balance tests	Perturbation-based balance tests
	Dynamic balance tests
	Torsional tests
Tests of spinal stability		Tests of spinal stability

Measurement of core stability involves the incorporation of variables of balance and coordination. Core stability tests usually require the individual to maintain a neutral spinal posture in a quadrupedal or supine position that involves activation of local core muscles. Other tests, such as the Biering-Sørensen test of lumbar extension or the flexor and side bridge endurance tests assess the static muscular endurance of global core muscles. Another examples are instrumented torsional tests, which can be performed on either a stable or an unstable support surface. During these tests, basic stabilographic parameters can be registered using the posturography systems based on a force plate. We have found that postural and core stability under unstable conditions are better in female than male subjects, whereas males perform better when core stability is maintained on a stable support surface (Zemková, 2019b).

Similarly, postural stability can be evaluated under both static (bipedal or one-legged stance on a stable platform with eyes open and eyes closed) and dynamic conditions (a stance on a foam cushion or a spring-supported platform, external perturbations generated from a platform either shifting in antero-posterior and medio-lateral direction or tilting toes up and down, and applying them directly to the body by pushing/pulling the trunk, shoulders or pelvis).

However, frequently used static posturography in most cases is not sensitive enough to differentiate balance performance in physically active individuals. Lower sensitivity of static posturography is a consequence of multiple sensory inputs (visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive) involved in postural control. Such a system can compensate for a smaller impairment of balance in such a way that under normal conditions (stance on a stable surface) no deficits in postural stability may be apparent. Under dynamic conditions (stance on an unstable surface), the control mechanisms are taxed to a substantially higher extent so that individual differences can be revealed.

Indeed, standing on an unstable foam surface or a spring-supported platform while testing body balance is more efficient in discriminating within-group and between-group differences when compared to static balance tests (Zemková, Hamar, 2015; Zemková et al., 2015c). A recent study showed that unstable conditions improve the discriminatory accuracy of balance tests with both eyes open and eyes closed in healthy young, early and late middle-aged adults (Zemková et al., 2018).

Also the dynamic posturography in many cases represents more specific and hence more appropriate alternative for the assessment of balance than systems allowing for monitoring of the CoP variables in static conditions. Various protocols, based on varied determinants of plate translation, such as the direction, displacement, and velocity can be designed (Zemková et al., 2015b). Concurrently with measurement of CoP movement, trunk movement representing roughly the center of mass (CoM) can also be monitored. We have found that postural and trunk responses to unexpected perturbations depend on the velocity and direction of platform motion (Zemková et al., 2016b). Specifically, the velocity of perturbation alters peak CoM velocity rather than the magnitude of CoM displacement. The effect of the direction of perturbations on the trunk response emerges only at a high velocity of platform motion, such that the peak CoM velocity and peak CoM acceleration are significantly greater in the anterior than posterior direction. However, most of these posturography systems have been employed mainly for clinical examination of patients with balance disorders. The practice implies that computerized portable devices that are more applicable to routine testing in the field are preferred over laboratory techniques.

A suitable alternative represents perturbation based balance tests. In the case of the trunk repositioning task, the subject has to passively or actively return to a neutral spine position after a predefined displacement. The load release task requires the subject to perform an isometric contraction of trunk muscles at a predefined intensity against an external load, which is thereafter released, and the trunk displacement is evaluated. This test conducted under unstable conditions is able to differentiate between groups of physically active and sedentary adults as early as from 19 years of age (Zemková et al., 2016d).

Also task-oriented balance tests are more sensitive in discriminating between group differences than tests performed under stable conditions (Zemková, 2017). In addition, the accurancy of static balance tests can be inï¬‚uenced by factors, such as motivation or attentiveness, which are diï¬ƒcult to control in young and also elderly individuals. While the test in a form of visually-guided CoM target-matching task is better for children and youth, for elderly people the test in a form of visually-guided CoM tracking task represents a more appropriate alternative. A moderate correlation between parameters of these task-oriented balance tests (r = 0.46) and the common variance of 13% indicates that they assess distinct qualities. This is because voluntary feedback control of body position is performed under diï¬€erent conditions, i.e. the subject is focused either on the goal of the task (i.e. hitting the target) or on movement themselves (i.e. the positioning of the CoM). These test diï¬€erences allow assessment of accuracy of regulation of body movement that requires less or more feedback processing. This is of special importance for children who regulate their CoM movement in a more conscious, eï¬€ortful fashion (i.e. observed as a longer CoP trajectory) with their decisions about the action being handled in a slow, attention-demanding way (i.e. shown as a slower response time).

These tests can be completed with measurements of spinal curvature using a non-invasive surface-based techniques (Muyor et al., 2014). Additional data on functional balance can be obtained using techniques based on motion analysis or accelerometry recordings while evaluating head, limb and trunk movements. The use of trunk accelerometry is a cost-eï¬€ective and easily applied solution for measuring body balance and human movement. With the advent of fast wireless technology and low-cost accelerometers, their use in the ï¬eld-testing of various aspects of balance is now feasible.

Conclusion

Taking into account the importance of body balance and core stability in most sporting and daily activities, their assessment should be considered an integral part of the functional testing in physically active individuals as well as those with a predominantly sedentary life style (Zemková, 2015b; Zemková a kol., 2015a; Zemková, 2018b). This study presented our experience with applications of postural and core stability tests in the assessment of subjects of different ages and levels of physical fitness (Zemková, 2011; Zemková a kol., 2016a; Zemková a kol., 2016c; Zemková a kol., 2017; Zemková, Hamar, 2018). Revealing changes in balance functions across the lifespan can provide useful information for designing the individually tailored exercise programs (Zemková, 2010), which may contribute to the enhancement of athletic performance and/or decrease the risk of falls and fall-related injuries in general population.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Scientific Grant Agency of the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic and the Slovak Academy of Sciences (No. 1/0824/17) and the Slovak Research and Development Agency under the contract No. APVV-15-0704.

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Vol.1/2020/76

Long Term Athletes Selection and Orientation at the Olympic Sport Contemporary Stage of Development

Oksana Shynkaruk1, Oleksandr Krasilshchikov2

1 National University of Ukraine of Physical Education and Sport, UKRAINE

2 Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA

Corresponding Author: Oksana Shynkaruk, shi-oksana@ukr.net

Abstract.

Purpose of the study: To justify and present organizational and managerial model of long term athletes’ selection and orientation system.

Research methods included: Longitudinal studies and practical work experience with teams an individuals in various sports, analysis of scientific and methodological literature, observations, pedagogic interventions, expert assessments, and statistical analysis. Participants of the study included 24 elite athletes – Ukraine National teams’ members; athletes belonging to basic training stage and the ones approaching top performance stage: 256 16-20 years of age canoers and kayakers; 30 16 to 18 years of age track and field athletes; 104 14-16 years old fencers of and 47 of 17-22 years old fencers; 158 children belonging to mass school sports and from the initial training stage and 299 parents. Apart from that, respondents included 41 lead canoeing and kayaking coaches and 45 fencing coaches. Bio data of 3771 Olympic champions and medal winners in 9 sports from 1956 - 1976 and 1988 - 2016 Olympics was analysed as well.

Results: Projected long term selection and orientation system targeting the achievement of top performance in the Olympic Games includes three tiers: training, selection and orientation of the distant reserves; training, selection and orientation of the close reserves; training and selection to the National teams and orientation. The trend in the contemporary sport is that the age of the major international competitions winners is on the rise. On the other hand there is a discrepancy between the age of the Youth Olympics’ participants and the age of first great success in contemporary top performance sports. This is clearly seen while comparing the Youth Olympics age group and the age of first great success of the current Olympic champions and medal winners.

Hence the age of enrolment in sports, the age of the first great success and the age of maximal realisation of sports potential are among the valid criteria for selection and prospects’ assessment of an athlete long term career.

Conclusion: The proposed athletes’ long-term selection and orientation organizational and managerial model is associated with formation of the maximal realisation of a particular athlete natural aptitudes training system. Long-term athletic career should be associated with the longitudinal system of athletes’ selection and orientation; the age ranges for high performance longevity in contemporary sports need scientific justification.

Keywords: long-term training, selection, orientation, sport reserves, age groups.

Introduction

Contemporary Sports features effective system of training being developed in many countries which emerged due to intense commercialization and professionalization of sport and to the increased social and political weightage of success in both summer and winter Olympics (Oakley and Green, 2001; Green and Houlihan, 2005; Yamamoto, 2008; Shynkaruk, Dutchak and Pavlenko, 2013). This in turn significantly increased the competition internationally.

Such developments determined the focus of Olympic sport related research in the past decades. Those include issues of optimizing long-term training and annual periodization (Bompa and Carrera M., 2005; Dunbar, 1991; Issurin, 2008; Platonov, 2013; Kostiukevych et al., 2018, 2019), youth athletes’ training (Matveev, 2001; Volkov, 2002).

Stable growth of records and intensified due to increased numbers of commercial tournaments competition schedules much intensified athletes’ training and competing activities and seriously increased the loads to bear by the human body in elite sport (Shynkaruk, 2011; Bouchard, 1992, Brown, 2001). That triggered the necessity to research into talent identification and selection.

Special attention is paid to sports orientation allowing to explore athletes’ predisposition (aiming for early diagnostics) to achieve top performance in particular disciplines and events (Shynkaruk, 2011).

The purpose of the study was to justify and present organizational and managerial model of long term athletes’ selection and orientation system.

Material & methods.

Research methods included longitudinal studies and practical work experience with teams an individuals in various sports, analysis of scientific and methodological literature, observations, pedagogic interventions, expert assessments, and statistical analysis (Byshevets, N. at all,2019).

Participants of the study included 24 elite athletes – Ukraine National teams’ members; athletes belonging to basic training stage and the ones approaching top performance stage: 256 16-20 years of age canoeists and kayakers; 30 16 to 18 years of age track and field athletes; 104 14-16 years old fencers of and 47 of 17-22 years old fencers; 158 children belonging to mass school sports and from the initial training stage and 299 parents.

Apart from that, respondents included 41 lead canoeing and kayaking coaches and 45 fencing coaches. Bio data of 3771 Olympic champions and medal winners in 9 sports from 1956 - 1976 and 1988 - 2016 Olympics was analysed as well.

Results end Discussion.

Own research (Shynkaruk O., 2011, 2012) and analysis of elite athletes’ training clearly demonstrates that contemporary sport has defined organizational-managerial pattern of athletes’ long term selection and orientation system. That selection system consists of numerous long term training stages whereas selection system is well branched.

While defining and verifying such pattern we have considered three basic positions.

The first position is that sports training has to be treated as a phased long-term enhancement of athletes’ performance level. That works through the linkage between youth sport and top performance sport in order to create preferential conditions for the ones forming perspective reserve through involving most gifted children from sports school in centralized training (Shynkaruk Ðž., 2006).

The diagram presents organizational-managerial design of athletes’ long-term selection and orientation of training system (Fig. 1).

Understanding that long term training system with selection and orientation at its various stages should be presented as a whole, enabled us to visualize certain formational principles of such system. Among those are:

1. Long term training would be aimed at top performance provided:

The sub-systems of youth sports, reserve sport and elite sport are aligned on the basis of contemporary achievements in sports science;
Sport selection and orientation should be arranged in the most beneficial manner for both long term training system goals and school (even pre-school) physical education
Every stage of long term training would be treated equally in terms of focus, funding, equipment, methodical, medical etc. provision; realistic distribution of functions and resources among government and NG organizations in their contribution to training the closest and remote reservists to the national teams.
The headcount of the involved at long term training various stages is optimal and the system caters for weeding out of less perspective athletes instead inviting the most prospective ones to join;
The organization and methodology conditions set are beneficial for effective non-conflicting individual development of the selected talents and enable them to effectively realize their abilities while competing eventually towards maximal performance.

2. To maintain the core methodology of athletes’ training through their long term preparation, certain principles have to be followed:

Minimizing pedagogical, psychological and organizational flaws in long-, mid-, short- term and ongoing training;

Continuously monitoring of the state of the athlete’s body systems in the process of performing training and competition loads;

Optimizing (towards minimization) the volumes and intensity of training loads and loads’ dynamics the training process at the stages, periods of sports training and while conducting training sessions;

Preventing injuries and ailments during the periods of intensive training and while participating in competitions.

3. Development of sports science and technology in priority areas should be organizational basis for intensification. Among those are:

the search for new, non-traditional technologies and alternative approaches to improving the structure and increasing the effectiveness of sports training, selection of athletes and their orientation at all stages of long-term development;
the formation of an effective system of information and analytical support for the development of children-youth, reserve sports and sports of the highest achievements;
improving the system of training and re-training of personnel on the basis of targeted stimulation of their continuing education and self-education, the formation of the need for sources of systematic information on scientific and technological innovations in the field of their professional activity;
creation of a user-friendly infrastructure for scientific and technological support for the training of national teams and their reserves on the basis of multi-purpose and sports-specialized centers and mobile groups of scientific and methodological support;
improvement of regulations on various organizations in which athletes are trained at various stages of long-term improvement, their programs and curricula, performance criteria of organizations and coaches involved in long-term training at its various levels, etc.

4. The process of increasing the efficiency of training the remote, closest reserve and national teams is controlled on the basis of the following principles:

• Concentration of efforts of scientists and specialists in promising areas of improving the sports training system;

• Strengthening and developing training infrastructure in youth and reserve sports and sports of the highest achievements.

Second position is related to the presentation of the system of long-term improvement in close relationship with the system of selection of athletes and orientation of their training.

Experts are undivided in their opinion that it is impossible to determine an individual predisposition to sporting achievements through any one-time procedures (observation, testing, etc.):

Firstly, sports inclination is a complex set of individual properties (biophysical and personality-psychic), most of which are not present simultaneously in a given time range, but rather at different times, depending on the age and training age;
Secondly, the individual abilities for sport achievement and personal aptitudes to achievement realization are dynamic – those vary throughout natural individual development and are influenced by social environment. Thus, the diagnostics of an individual sports predisposition, and hence sports orientation, must be carried out not as a one-time event, but as a phased repeated process.

Design of an optimal athlete training system requires primary sports orientation at the initial stage, further refined and completed when the subject makes a choice of thorough sports specialization, with the directions and parameters of further sports activities set as well.

Presumably, in many cases two or three years from the beginning of systematic sports activities in childhood and adolescence is enough to determine the appropriate course of sports specialization and predict sports prospects in first approximation. However, this primary orientation may require significant correction in future. This is especially important when in real life an athlete has to go along with sports professionalization issues.

To ensure the harmony of training, long-term selection and orientation, we suggested the pathways for steady athletic performance growth, based on setting the alignment of predispositions, individual developmental pace, chosen sport specificity, rational training loads at every stage of the long term athletic career (Figure 2).

All levels of sport, every long-term improvement stage should be provided with equal emphasis on technical, financial, personnel, scientific, methodological and medical support issues. Concentrating attention only on national teams and insufficient focus on the immediate and remote reserves may inevitably affect the effectiveness of training towards the Olympics.

Every stage of long-term improvement ought to have optimal number of participating athletes: the continuous exit of insufficiently (in terms of the Olympic values) talented athletes, and the influx of talented children.

Application of the prescribed training methodology depends on the parties’ involved and regulatory documents on various organizations which manage athletes’ training at various stages of long-term improvement; including programs, syllabuses, performance indicators for those organizations and coaches involved in Olympic training at its various performance levels.

Fig.2 Orientation of training in athletes throughout long-term career

Third position relates to justifying the age ranges projected as likely extension of athletes’ high performance at the final stages of sports career.

As a rule, long-term athlete training begins in childhood and adolescence, progresses depending on the sport and event for about a decade or more and includes basic stages of development and maintenance of master skill. In order to create a construct of the long-term training system, one should rely on typical gender and specialization pattern of athlete development, age of enrolling in sport and age of top performance, training age, required to reach that top performance, and duration of maintenance of performance.

The analysis of the sportsmen’s biographies – the champions and Olympic prize-winners and the world championships and their performance’s results of 1956-1976 and 1996-2016 allowed to get modern information of the beginning of doing sport, age-dependent areas of achievement of the first successes on a sporting arena and age-dependent scopes of the greatest results of sportsmen. For the last decades neither diminishing nor increases of age of beginning of employments was marked by sport. In the number of the most meaningful results of study of optimum age for achievement of the greatest sporting results is an exposure of substantial, in a number of cases cardinal, its differences depending on specialization of sportsmen, a few less size of it for women and, that, probably, requires more detailed consideration. (fig. 3).

Biographies’ analysis of the Olympic champions, medalists and the world championships and their results in 1956-1976 and 1996-2016, revealed information on the beginning of sport enrollment, age-dependent spaces for the first successes and age-dependent spaces of the greatest sport achievements. For the last decades, neither diminishing nor increase in the age of sport enrollment was observed in various sports. Optimal age for top performance greatly depends on the sport, performance contributing factors, is a bit early in females which definitely requires deeper analysis (fig. 3).

Fig 3. Structure of long standing preparation in rowing, kayak and canoe, artistic gymnastics

Present trend is the greater age of top competitions winners. It typically shows in cyclic sports (Figure 4). Critical structural changes in the long-term training during the last decades are in the increased age of accomplishing the highest performance; and even more so in the extended duration of maintenance of top performance. Interestingly, both involve bright individual pathways of reaching top performance and especially maintaining it.

As of planning of an athlete’s preparation is concerned, it makes sense to project achieving top performance at optimum age, which differs gender wise, discipline and event wise.

Fig. 4. Structure of long standing preparation in different kinds of sport

To make that happen, basic training should be in focus for in many sports that age period covers adolescence which features a-synchronized systems and organs development, adjustments of endocrine system etc. That put together may alter adaptations; affect working capacity, slow down the recovery after training and competitive loads.

Quite worrying in that sense is participation of young, immature athletes in first Youth Olympics 2010 in Singapore in which performing age in most sports was 16 to 17 years.

Comparing athletes’ age while performing in Youth Olympics with age of demonstrating first high achievements of those current champions and medal winners of the Olympic Games, shows some discrepancy between those two age ranges (fig. 5).

Example. Birgit Fischer, Germany: has won 8 Olympic gold medals and an astonishing 28 World Championship titles, her first gold medal at 18-years, 50-years.

Josefa Idem Guerrini, Italy: is a West German-born Italian sprint canoer. Competing in seven Summer Olympics, she has five medals. Winning 35 international medals during her career, Idem was the first Italian woman to win World Championships (22 total, five gold) and Olympic medals in canoe sprint. At the 2009 world championships, she became the oldest medalist in the history of the world championships. Josefa Idem began paddling at the age of eleven.

Conclusions

Suggested pattern of long-term selection and orientation of athletes’ training, focused on achieving top performance at the Olympic Games includes three levels:

• Preparation, selection and orientation of the remote reserves;

• Preparation, selection and orientation of the close reserves;

• Training, selection to the national teams and orientation.

Such approach enables both coaches and athletes to focus on specialized training while through the career in top performance sports in order to reach the planned maximum performance in a planned and guaranteed way when it is required.

Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest.

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Information of the authors

Oksana Shynkaruk

Professor, Doctor of Science

Chef of Innovation and Information Technologies in Physical Culture and Sports Department National University of Ukraine of Physical Education and Sport, UKRAINE, 03150, 1, Fizcultury st., Kyiv, Ukraine

+380674202019

shi-oksana@ukr.net

shi-oksana@gmail.com

Oleksandr Krasilshchikov

Professor,

University Sains

Malaysia, MALAYSIA

olek@usm.my

Vol.1/2020/82

International Conference

Title: Plan of physical and recreational activities that improve the quality of life of Women aged 60 to 75 years in the VI Yachhen area of â€‹â€‹the community of Bhaktapur, Nepal.

Author: Sulochana Sijakhwa

Sports Experts

10th South Asian Game , Gold Medalist.

Country: Nepal

Email: sulo.sija@gmail.com

Abstract

In the evolution of life, man goes through certain stages to reach aging, which is caused by different factors: genetic, physiological, socio-economic and subjective, so that humanity must gain in consciousness about it. The exploratory and descriptive studies carried out by the author to the health personnel of the health centers of Zone VI, the analysis of the clinical history of the patients and staff attending these centers, the interviews with the personnel in charge of physical activity, and Health and surveys conducted on Women aged 60 to 75 reveal the existence of inadequate quality of life then How to modify these quality of life in women aged 60 to 75 years in the VI Yachhen area of the community of Bhaktapur, Nepal ?, with the use of theoretical methods the research is based and from the needs emanated by the diagnosis is designed a plan of physical-recreational activities that improve the quality of life of women from 60 to 75 years in the area VI Yachhen from the community of Bhaktapur, Nepal.

Vol.1/2020/83

Prediction of High Performance in Sports and Games based on Genetic analysis

1Rushali Kamath, 1,2Bannikuppe S. Vishwanath, and 3*Mallaiah Chandrakumar

1Department of Studies in Biochemistry, 2Department of Studies in Molecular Biology 3Department of Studies in Physical Education and Sports Science, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysuru – 570 005.

*Correspondence Author

Introduction

Champions are born with inherited physical potential, and by providing all kinds of support like technical, psychological, environmental, they can be molded into top class performers. Individuals have always been screened through different means for their athletic, physical and behavioral prowess that contributes to their high performance in sports. There has been a variety of screening methods like Pre-Participation Physical Evaluation (PPE) to screen for illnesses, injury susceptibility or medical conditions. Counseling has always been done to understand the psychological aspect of the athletes. This has been a mandatory administrative requirement for sports authorities/federation for organized sports for years. However, the main drawback to these screening methods have always been that it was time-consuming, non-uniformity of protocols, compliance issues and occasionally no follow-up is done. With all these existing conventional screening procedures, if the athlete does not possesses their required inherited potentialities any form of support will result in identifying/developing an average athlete.

Is there any other way a standardized protocol could be established for identification of sports high-performances in athletes that can screen for prevalent conditions, is accurate, practical, and cost-effective and can identify treatable conditions? A bonus would be that it should be non-invasive and simple.

The answer to this lies in a concept of molecular biology where a simple saliva sample or cheek swab can donate the whole genetic blueprint of the person. Here is where basic molecular techniques of extraction of DNA meet genomic studies. Sports Genomics is now a new upcoming field that is gaining momentum in the world of analysis and improvement of sports high performance and uses the genetic knowledge of the person to assess their abilities and performances in sports.

Athlete status is now found to be a heritable trait and on an average 66% of variance in athlete status is explained by genetic factors. Its development is later done by environmental factors (1). There are multitudes of factors that are responsible for elite athlete performance that is a combination of physiological and psychological factors and they can be measured by mapping the genetic markers. The traits that are analyzed are maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max), skeletal muscle composition, and motor activity and sub maximum aerobic performance. Performance variants can be found in differences of lifestyles, environment conditions like terrain, distance from sea level, eating habits, motivation, sports equipment and training programs and is all contained within the genetic material of an individual.

Assessing the genetic trait can now be done by simple biochemical methods and proper gene analysis can be done to generate a blueprint of the athletes’ traits which will be advantageous in a wide variety of ways. A person can be screened for their genetic disabilities beforehand preventing avoidable fatalities and health complications. Knowing whether the athlete bears favorable traits for the field of their interest helps the coach to effectively train them and the best diet, training regime and personalized psychological counseling could be tailor-made for the athlete in question.

This is the next step of enhancing athletic performance and is done in many developed nations already. It is high time this concept was incorporated in the Indian sports fields to generate elite athletes more effectively.

PRINCIPLE

2.1 Genome and Chromosomes

Fig 1: Condensation of DNA, subsequent wrapping around histone proteins and formation of chromosomes. (https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/basics/chromosome)

The human genome represents the full complement of genetic material in a human cell. The genome is distributed among 23 pairs of chromosomes and it is this that imparts our individual uniqueness. Chromosomes are made up of genes that contain the genetic blueprint or “roadmap” of instructions for almost every aspect of our being.

Genes are traits of heredity that consists of a particular set of instructions that determine the features the organism possesses, how it behaves and how it survives. They are made of DNA that encode for all proteins within the body be it enzymes, structural proteins or even cellular machinery by the process of transcription and translation. (33)

Fig 2: 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans. (https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/basics/howmanychromosomes)

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes with each set inherited from one parent. Together the 23 pairs of chromosomes encode all the traits and characters of humans. The Human Genome Project has mapped the locations of all the genes and now it is possible to locate the specific gene of interest.

Fig 3: Banding pattern of the chromosomes. The arm names can be p or q. within the arms, numbering is often applied to denote the position of genes. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/g-banding)

The chromosomes were visualized at the beginning because they stained vividly. Using a variety of stains, the stained bands were observed and the genes could be located easily. Locations of genes could be traced and it was called locus. The location of a trait (characteristic of a gene) was found to be mostly conserved across all members of a species. Egs: Sickle cell anemia mutation holders always bear the mutation in the 11th chromosome in p arm at 15th band at 5th position. So the chromosome locus assigned to that gene is given as Chr11p15.5. This is how the location of the genes can be mapped and traced.

2.2 Central Dogma of Molecular Biology- DNA to proteins.

Fig 4: Above: https://biologywise.com/protein-synthesis-process. Below: https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/gene-expression-14121669/

The DNA that makes up the chromosomes are in the form of a nucleotide sequence. This nucleotide sequence gets transcripted to mRNA where the junk DNA is eliminated and only the genes are gathered as RNA and it moves out of the nucleus, gets translated to form polypeptides that eventually make up the protein of interest.

2.3 Formation of Proteins:

Fig 5: Above: The mRNA translation process overview. (https://www.expii.com/t/role-of-mrna-10218). Below: The genetic code with names of amino acids encoded and nature of amino acids. (https://biologydictionary.net/genetic-code/)

The sequence of nucleotides on the mRNA is translated in the form of codons. Three nucleotides encode one amino acid. The amino acids encoded are listed in the table (Fig:5, below) and can be polar, non-polar, hydrophilic and hydrophobic.

Fig 6: https://www.atascientific.com.au/3-protein-analysis-techniques/

The polypeptide folds and forms a 3D structure from the linear structure with all the hydrophobic residues internalized and hydrophilic residues outside to form a stable functional structure. The protein formed at stable and in most functional state. All proteins formed in the body folds this way: be it muscle proteins, enzymes, hemoglobin, etc. Any variations in the nucleotides will hence be carried unto the mRNA and will affect the amino acid residues and eventually change the protein structure and function.

This can be exemplified by the disorder of Sickle Cell Anemia.

2.4 Sickle Cell Anemia

Fig7: Above: A single nucleotide substitution A to T, leads to the formation of another amino acid residue: Glutamate to Valine. Below: This substitution causes a whole other change in the structure thus leading to sickling and polymerization of hemoglobin, causing haemorrhage.

Sickle Cell Anemia is a genetic disorder of a single nucleotide substitution (A to T) in the HBB gene that encodes hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a crucial element of RBCs and plays an important role in the distribution of oxygen across the body. Any variations in the hemoglobin can have adverse conditions, especially in hypoxic conditions. This replacement of A by T, leads to the formation of Valine instead of Glutamic Acid. Glutamic acid is present on the outer part of hemoglobin protein but if it gets replaced by the hydrophobic valine, that position of amino acid will distort and move to the core and the whole structure of hemoglobin will change.

This is a genetic mutation; hence the RBCs all across the body will have defective hemoglobin. This defective hemoglobin sickles or polymerizes in hypoxic conditions thus will not be able to provide oxygen effectively to the body parts, which can be fatal. This condition is not detectable in normoxia. In fact, 20-year-old Bennie F. Abram who had started his first day of football practice as a junior at the University of Mississippi collapsed and died. In 2010, 20-year-old Jospin Milandu and 15-year-old Oliver Louis also died unexpectedly while working out with their teams due to this.

Hence, determining this by gene sequence analysis became a necessity and is now in practice. This is a basic overview of how a single nucleotide change can influence body proteins.

2.5 Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)

Fig 8: Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs)

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Single_nucleotide_polymorphism_substitution_mutation_diagram_-_cytosine_to_thymine.png

Taking the case of sickle cell anemia, where the mutation turned out to be disastrous, sometimes and the mutation can be favorable to the person. The gene present at a particular locus that is made of DNA can bear a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs). SNP is a single base-pair change that contributes to the uniqueness of an individual. It varies from individual to individual and can be traced quite easily with recent technologies. It is of various types like addition of a new base-pair, deletion, replacement or frame shift mutations. The significance of SNPs is that a single mismatch in nucleotide sequence predisposes an individual to a particular disease or injury like a ligament tear or can even enhance their traits like increasing their hypoxic resistance and metabolism.

Fig 9: Attributes of Sports Performances.(Geetanjali B, Subhadra M. Nutritional Guidelines for Sportspersons. 10.5005/jp/books/18033_10,2018)https://www.jaypeedigital.com/book/9789352703456)

The above mentioned concept of SNPs is what makes sportspersons different; in their capacity to perform, excel and heal. Such SNPs often contribute advantageously or negatively to traits like speed, power, endurance, balance, agility, maximal oxygen uptake, anaerobic threshold, anthropometry, flexibility and recovery. That is the reason some sportspersons are skilled at endurance sports, some at power-oriented sports and some can tolerate low oxygen conditions, etc. This is the concept involved in genetic testing of sports performance. Various countries have employed the detection of such SNPs using Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) to characterize the abilities and detect them in upcoming sportspersons as a test of their innate ability to perform.(1)

Based on studies of such single nucleotide polymorphisms in various countries, possibly significant genes that contribute to sports performances, their loci, the attribute and the positive single nucleotide polymorphism and the groups of elite athletes it has been confirmed in has been listed below.

1. Link between determination of SNPs and Sports Performance

The attributes of sportspersons are encoded by certain select genes. For example: ACTN3 gene that is the alpha-actinin 3 is one of the predominant proteins in α-actinins and is limited to fast-muscle fibers which is responsible for generating force at high velocity. The protein also stabilizes muscle contractile apparatus. At the 577th amino acid position, there is a common replacement of an arginine residue by a stop codon (R to X at 577th position). This allows for only a part of the protein to form due to the premature stop codon (protein synthesis will terminate). Because the complete alpha-actinin was not encoded, the people bearing this mutation tend to tire easily and have slower recovery rates from exercise induced muscle damage.(5) A single replacement of C nucleotide by T nucleotide on the chromosomal locus of 11q13.1, leads to transcription of stop codon thus stopping the protein from being synthesized halfway: an incomplete muscle protein. This negatively affects the sportsperson. In elite Finnish sprint athletes, the replacement was not seen (they bore C nucleotide) and was observed to have the complete protein. This genotype of R577X was seen highly underrepresented in Australian power athletes and none of the Olympian female athletes had XX genotype. (1) (3)

In inference, it could be said that them not having the mutation, enhanced their sports performance.

Similarly, other genetic markers are listed out whose mutations (SNPs) negatively or positively affect the athletic performance.

Sl. No.	Gene Markers	Locus	Allele	Quality	Countries
1.	ACTN3	11q13.1	Rs1815739 C/T	Power	Elite Finnish sprint athletes,
2.	ACE I/D	17q23.3	287bp Alu insertion, rs4646994	Endurance, Power	British and Japanese elite long-distance runners, Australian, Croatian, Russian, and Spanish elite athletes, Italian Olympic endurance athletes, Turkish athletes, Polish rowers.
3.	PPARA	22q13.31	Rs4253778 G/C	Power	Lithuanian power-oriented athletes and they show better hand grip
4.	COL5A1	9q32.2-q34.3	Rs12722 C/T	Endurance	Caucasian Ironman triathletes
5.	HIF1A	14q23.2	Rs11549465 C/T	Endurance	Caucasian male elite athletes, Russian endurance athletes
6.	NOS3	7q36	Rs2070744T/C	Endurance	Caucasian fastest finishing tri- athletes

Table 1: List of genetic markers well studied and confirmed in at least three studies. The genetic markers represent the power and endurance phenotype. The required alleles and the functions of the genes are known. (1)

The biochemistry behind the selection of the following gene markers for sports.

About 11 markers for power and endurance have been confirmed with elite athlete status in more than studies. However, the above-mentioned genes have generated quite an interest and their alleles have been well documented. (1) (27)

Angiotensin Converting Enzyme-I (ACE) gene has multiple functions that boosts the body functions and regulates blood volume and pressure by synthesis of a vasoconstrictor Angiotensin II and degrading vasodilators kinins. The two alleles of interest in the ACE gene are I and D. The I allele boosts endurance performance as it lowers ACE activity thus increasing bradykinin that leads to enhanced substrate delivery to muscles. The D allele, by contrast favors power sports by improving cardiac function. (2)

COL5A1 gene influences the energy cost of running as it encodes a Type V collagen in ligaments.(2) Collagens are a group of extracellular matrix proteins and are most abundant proteins in mammals making up about 25%-35% of the whole-body protein content and the COL5A1 gene encodes the pro-α1 chain of type V collagen. The carriers of rs12722 T polymorphism have more inflexibility that enhances running performance. This was expounded in Caucasian Ironman tri-athletes as the individuals bearing this gene polymorphism ran faster significantly. A second study replicated the results in ultra marathon runners. (9)

Hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF1A) proteins inhibit protein degradation under hypoxic conditions and gets stimulated in turn increasing the rate of erythropoiesis and subsequently increasing oxygen delivery to the muscles. The C allele of HIF1A depicts a higher value of VO2 max which is an important factor governing the capacity of marathon running performance. (2)

HIF1A, NOS3 and PPARA are associated with power status in Ukraine. (27)

ACTN3

Fig 10: Genomic sequence of ACTN3 Gene ID 89 (RefSeqGeneNG_013304.2/ACTN3 transcript variant 1, coding NM_001104.4:c.1729C>T=R[CGA] > Stop [TGA] Source:ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/snp/rs1815739)

Fig 11: Aminoacid sequence encoded by the ACTN3 gene isoform 1 (NCBI Reference Sequence: NP_001095.2) Source: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/protein/585866354

The predominant genetic variation of ACTN3 is the replacement of arginine by a stop codon. The genotypes in question will be ACTN3 XX, ACTN3 RX and ACTN3 RR. Alpha-actinin 3 is a component of the fast-twitch skeletal muscle fibers and the sequence of ACTN3 that encodes it is strongly conserved. (16) The presence of RR and RX allele encodes the protein completely whereas XX allele means there is a condition of deficiency of alpha-actinin 3 proteins. However, there is no association of XX with any disease as up regulation of its closely related isoform alpha-actinin 2 occurs. (16) The frequency of ACTN3 XX is reduced in athletes from various studies. (12) Though there is no concrete evidence that ACTN3 R allele is associated with the power status, it has been used as a genetic marker by companies.

ACTN3 R577X allele has been linked to exercise-induced muscle damage. (4) In a study, the individuals bearing XX gene had higher pain scores and higher serum CK activity than the RR bearing individuals after performing a series of maximal eccentric knee extensions with both legs concluding that there is a possible protective function of complete α-actinin 3 proteins. (5)Also subjects with RR and RX polymorphisms are more resistant to muscle damage resulting from high intensity genotype than athletes with XX genotype. (14) Due to this endurance ability donated by the R allele, Papadimitrou et al, 2016 demonstrated that male Caucasian sprinters with ACTN3 577RR had the fastest time for 200m and no other candidates with ACTN3 577XX could beat the record. (15)

ACE

Fig 12: NCBI dbSNP query: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/snp/rs4646994

Fig 13: NCBI dbSNP query: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/snp/rs4646994

Fig 10 :ACE:IntronVariant; chr17:63488530-63488543 (GRCh38.p12); https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/snp/rs1799752

The polymorphism is seen in intron 16 of the human ACE gene. The I allele is an insertion of a 287-base pair Alu sequence and is linked to lower circulating tissue ACE while D allele is the deletion of the same. (13)This affects the function of the enzyme activity which is tied to the regulation of blood pressure and cardio-respiratory efficiency. The DD genotype has been associated with power sports and I allele with endurance sports. (8) In fact, ACE DD genotype bearing individuals had fastest 400m sprint time than their ACE II counterparts (15). There is also evidence of ACE II alleles enhancing aerobic power. (26)The presence of the insertion allele has been seen in elite mountaineers, long distance runners, Croatian rowers, Spanish elite athletes, elite Spanish runners, Russian middle-distance runners, Italian Olympic triathlon athletes and also Indian Army tri-athletes. (1)However, exceptions have been noted, for example; Israeli elite marathon runners have DD genotype (24) and hence this association may be dependent on the ethnicity. Also, there are contrary findings and as Papadimitrou et al succinctly put, ACE gene should not be the only factor considered; epigenetic factors like CpG islands, biomechanical factors of the muscles and thropometric factors should be considered. (17)

COL5A

Fig 14: NCBI dbSNP query

Fig 15: NCBI dbSNP queryhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/snp/rs12722

Apart from inflexibility, COL5A also is used as a marker for muscle injury as it is a genetic component contributing to tendon-ligament injury (TLI). It was observed that COL5A1 polymorphisms lessened the risk of TLI in Caucasians (10). Individuals with CC genotype had a significantly decreased risk of developing chronic Achilles tendinopathy than those with a T allele (28).

HIF1A

Fig 16: NCBI dbSNP queryhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/snp/rs11549465

HIF1A is a transcription factor that regulates many genes in response to hypoxic stimuli and is expressed more in glycolytic muscles. A missense mutation in exon 12 rs11549465 C/T results in substitution of proline with serine at the 582nd position that confers higher stability and transcriptional activity to HIF1A and also promotes glucose metabolism. (7) In subjects with Pro/Pro homozygous genes, it was observed that they can endure longer aerobic exercise whereas the ones with Pro/Ser heterozygous genes and Ser/Ser heterozygous genes endure longer anaerobic workouts. The frequency of HIF1A Ser589 is seen in elite and highly elite weightlifters, Polish, Ukrainian and Russian power-oriented athletes and in one study (11) this allele was linked to an increased proportion of fast-twitch muscle fibers in M.vastus lateralis of all-round speed skaters.

NOS3

Fig 17: NCBI dbSNP Query

Nitric oxide is a signaling molecule involved in activity of human skeletal muscle during exercise and regulating oxygen consumption in skeletal muscles. Genetic variation in Nitric Oxide Synthase gene (NOS3) could be associated with power/sprint performance and was recorded in Ukrainian and Italian power-oriented athletes and Spanish elite power-oriented athletes. The gene polymorphism is ars2070744 T/C substitution that results in Glu298. However, Glu298Asp polymorphism is unfavorable for high sports performance. (1) This is further confirmed by a study of three groups of Spanish Caucasian athletes and in conclusion it was given that the T allele of the -786 T/C polymorphism exercises an advantageous effect on power-oriented sports ability. (6) In case of NOS3, one study (23) proved that physical pre-conditioning evokes a genotype-influenced right ventricular adaptation.

PPARA

Fig 185: NCBI dbSNP Query

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) proteins belong to the steroid hormone receptor super family and associate with the retinoid X receptors to form heterodimers that regulate genes involved in lipid and glucose metabolism, adipocyte differentiation, fatty acid transport, carcinogenesis and inï¬‚ammation. PPARs exist in three different forms –alpha (PPARα), PPAR-beta/delta (PPARβ/δ) and PPAR-gamma (PPARγ), which are encoded by the genes PPARA, PPARD and PPARG. (29-31)

PPARA gene’s role is mainly in encoding proteins that regulate energy homeostasis, lipid metabolism and it is activated under conditions of energy deprivation thus enhancing uptake, utilization and catabolism of fatty acids. It has two genotypes: G and C. Higher proportion of athletes tend to have GG genotype and G allele. (19) Though the PPARA G/C polymorphism is located in the non-coding region of the gene in intron 7 and likely to be non-functional but there is a possibility that this polymorphism is in linkage disequilibrium with a functional variant in the promoter of an enhancer element of the PPARA gene that results in PPARA gene expression. Another possibility is that the PPARA polymorphism interacts with the PPAR receptors and other genes like ApoA1 and ApoB (20-22).

Apart from the above individual genes, certain studies try to elucidate multi-gene models to propose interactions between the various genes. In a study (18), there were interaction effects seen between ACE and NOS3. A three gene model of BDKRB2, AMPD1 and UCP2 showed high amount of accuracy with the results. While the genetic markers would be considered independently, the interactive mechanisms of the action of the genes should not be underestimated.

The most predominantly studied combination of genes is ACE and ACTN3. In competitive cross-country skiing, the allelic advantage was held by individuals bearing ACTN3 RR and ACE ID. (25) A study suggested that the ACTN3 R577X and ACE I/D polymorphisms independently affect the proportion of human skeletal muscle fibers MHC-I and MHC-IIx in men but not in women.(29)

2.7 Genetic testing for sports around the world: Methods and DTCs

The stepwise method of genetic assessment of sportspersons starts by first, the isolation of the genomic DNA content from the swab cells, purification and genetic sequencing. There are established protocols and kits available for this process. DNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleic acid sequence – the order of nucleotides in DNA. It includes any method or technology that is used to determine the order of the four bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. The advent of rapid DNA sequencing methods has greatly accelerated biological and medical research and discovery.(34) The SNP assessment can also be done using Entrez database in the NCBI website called dbSNPs or using a library of artificial DNA.(33)

In vitro diagnostics (IVDs) that are marketed directly to consumers without the involvement of a health care provider are called direct-to-consumer tests (also referred to as DTCs). These tests generally request the consumer collect a specimen, such as saliva or urine, and send it to the company for testing and analysis. Direct-to-consumer testing is expanding the number of people who are able to get genetic testing of their DNA (or genome). This has been increasing in popularity in metropolitan cities for parents who subject their children to such testing to understand if they possess sports talent or not.(35) Such tests are preferred by people due to their non-invasiveness, affectivity and fast results.

SNP assessment fields have grown due to computer chip manufacturers and pharmaceuticals that have partnered together to develop techniques to identify these easily. Microarrays and silicon chips to assess the SNPs are now widely used.

Using the above methods, the analysis of such information is done by Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS). In this method, scanning of several 100,000 (up to 5 million) markers across complete DNA set is done to check for the performance enhancing polymorphisms (PEPs).(1)

There are two methods of doing these,

Case-Control Studies: This is the most common study design in sports genomics and here one allele is determined in the DNA sequence and this is checked to be common in a group of elite athletes. To avoid false-positive results, case control studies should have one replication with additional athletic and non-athletic cohorts from different populations.
Cross-Sectional Association Studies: Here the genotype of an athlete is taken and different traits are measured like VOmax, strength, percentage of fast twitch muscle fibers, cardiac size and lactate formation.

This helps to characterize the indigenous traits of athletes, especially here in India and also provides more scope for a more detailed understanding of the molecular mechanisms of such SNPs.

DISCUSSION

Athletic performance assessment has always been a crucial step for selection and training. The sports field has come a long way from physical, physiological and biological tests to assess the talent of an upcoming sportsperson. Sports genomics is the new next-level step that has to be taken to get a complete assessment of the individual. The methods to perform this test are not rocket-science, all it requires is a saliva sample and basic biochemical DNA extraction procedures and sequence analysis. The technologies for all this are now widely available and should be made most of. Screening of athletes for their talents can be done in large numbers and at a young age also, as the procedures are user-friendly and the core genetic blueprint never gets modified at any point by natural causes.

While the obtaining of samples has been found to be practical, non-invasive and convenient; the assessment by basic biochemical techniques and next generation sequencing has been established, the genes and SNPs have been characterized by GWAS and there is no dearth of elite athletes and upcoming aspiring athletes- what seems to be a problem?

The main issue that arises here are the ethical concerns. Seema Patel et al (36), proposed guidelines to genetic testing as such screening methods shouldn’t be misused to favor some sportspeople over the others. The screening method should be used to just improve the athlete’s training regimen and check which child has a higher affinity to the specific type of sport (endurance or strength). Jobs and selection of athletes also should not be solely based on this method as athletic status has just 66% of credibility and not 100%. Without proper characterization and biological confirmation of the genetic influence, decisions should not be made. The information obtained should also be in strict confidence of the coach or captain and the athlete in question. The rules and regulations of using this sensitive information has to be firmly established before this method becomes standard procedure.

Other issues that is faced is the lack of characterization of sports performance related SNPs in Indian population. All the above studies have been made in countries other than India and such analysis should also be carried out in India. The ethnicity factor is important and more studies should be conducted on the indigenous people to establish a firm foundation for genetic analysis. Genetic analysts and research scientists should lean into this field to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of favorable SNPs and provide more insights.

Furthermore, identifying a specific gene variant and performing accurate analysis of a specific gene variant allows for incorporation of appropriate lifestyle changes, personalized nutrition and efficient physiotherapy which can enhance athletic performance and effective strategies can be prepared to get the best out of each athlete. Incidents like the deaths due to sickle cell anemia and other genetic disorders can be avoided and athletes can be given individual personalized attention.

Hence in the long term, using this analysis can be a beacon of hope to the sports background of India. Sports has always been celebrated in India since ages, in fact according to the Budget review of India for the financial year 2020-2021, the sports budget has been increased to Rs 2826.92 crores for infrastructure and facilities (37). Pairing such a great boost of encouragement to sports with a concrete sports genetic base can predictably do wonders for the sports performance of Indian sportspersons.

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Vol.1/2020/84

Advantages of Physical Exertion on Health and Immunity status of Human beings.

Dr B.S Anuradha *,E.Manoj Kumar Reddy*, Dr S. Jeevan Chandra*, Dr P. Ravi Kumar**

*Chaitanya Deemed to be University Hanmakonda, Warangal Telangana.

**National Institute of Technology Warangal, Telangana (Corresponding Author)

The overall immune status of an individual depends on innate (In born) and Acquired immunity. Physical exertion improves the overall fitness, which can help boost the immune system -- the body's defense against infections.

Physical activity helps to flush out bacteria from the lungs and airways. This may reduce the upper respiratory tract infections.

Physical exertions causes change in antibodies and white blood cells (WBC). WBCs are the body's immune system cells that fight disease. These antibodies or WBCs circulate more rapidly, so they could detect illnesses at the earliest and start the defense mechanism..The brief rise in body temperature during and right after exercise may prevent bacteria from growing. This temperature rise may help the body fight infection better. It is also seen that exertion slows down the release of stress hormones. Some stress increases the chance of illness. Lower stress hormones may protect against illness. Exercise influences natural immunity, T- and B-cell functions, and cytokine responses, through circulatory (hemodynamic) changes and by endocrine hormones secreted in response to physical stress. The magnitude of the effects on the immune system reflects the intensity, duration and chronicity of the exercise.

Introduction:

During the last century, the population of developed and developing countries has become less physically active, either by the alteration in the kind of work, or by adoption of new habits attributable in part to changes in the demands of work and the adoption of new habits that are increasingly sedentary. This alteration has led to remarkable increases in the incidence of chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes, highlighted words obesity, musculoskeletal disorders, pulmonary diseases, certain types of cancer and neurological disorders. Regardless of the health status, sedentarism has also been affecting both the quality and life expectancy of these populations1.

The responses promoted by exercise, both acutely and chronically, affect many components of the immune system. Exercise of moderate intensity may stimulate parameters related to cellular immunity and hence decrease the risk of infection, while high-intensity exercise may promote a decrease of these same parameters, increasing the risk of infectious diseases [1,2,3]

The present study is aimed to systematically review the documented effects of physical exertion in health and in immune status of an individual.

The immune system

The term immunity refers to the body’s specific protective response to an invading foreign agent or organism.The immune system is large and complex and has a wide variety of functions. The main role of the immune system is to defend humans against germs, pathogens and microorganisms. There are several factors which influence or affect the daily functioning of the immune system: age, gender, eating habits, medical status, training and fitness level.

Bacteria and viruses can infect us and cause disease. The immune system helps in preventing infections and keeps us healthy, but problems with the immune system can still lead to illness and infections. The immune system is classified as ; the innate immunity, referred to as the first line of defense, and the acquired immunity, which, when activated, produces a specific reaction and immunological memory to each infectious agent.

The innate immune system

The innate or inborn immunity is something which we acquire by birth and genetic constitution.It consists of anatomic and physiological barriers (skin, mucous membranes, body temperature, low pH and special chemical mediators such as complement and interferon) and specialized cells (natural killer cells and phagocytes, including neutrophils, monocytes and macrophages [1] (Table 1). When the innate immune system fails to effectively combat an invading pathogen, the body produces a learned immune response.

	Innate Immuunity	Adaptive Immunity
Physical barriers	Epithelial cell barriers	Humoral	Antibody
	Mucus		Memory

Chemical barriers	Complement	Cell-mediated	Lymphocytes
	Lysozyme		T cells
	pH of body fluids		B cells
	Acute phase proteins

White blood cells	Monocytes/macrophages
	Granulocytes
	Natural killer cells

Table 1. Innate and adaptive immunity (Source: Modified after Mackinnon, 1999).(3)

Leukocytes (also known as white blood cells) form a component of the blood. They are mainly produced in the bone marrow and help to defend the body against infectious disease and foreign materials as part of the immune system. There are normally between 4x109 and 11x109 white blood cells in a liter of healthy adult blood [2] (Table 2). The leukocytes circulate through the body and seek out their targets. In this way, the immune system works in a coordinated manner to monitor the body for substances that might cause problems. There are two basic types of leukocytes; the phagoytes, which are cells that engulf invading organisms, and the lymphocytes, which allow the body to remember and recognize previous invaders [1].(Immunological Memory).

The granulocytes (a type of phagocyte that has small granules visible in the cytoplasm) consist of polymorphonuclear cells (PMN) which are subdivided into three classes; neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils (Table 2). The neutrophils are the most abundant white blood cells, they account for 65 to 70% of all leukocytes [2]. When activated, the neutrophils marginate and undergo selectin-dependent capture followed by integrin-dependent adhesion, before migrating into tissues. Leukocytes migrate toward the sites of infection or inflammation, and undergo a process called chemotaxis. Chemotaxis is the cells’ movement towards certain chemicals in their environment.

Granulocytes along with monocytes protect us against bacteria and other invading organisms, a process that is called phagocytosis (ingestion). Only cells participating in the phagocytosis are called phagocytes. The granulocytes are short lived. After they are released from the bone marrow they can circulate in the blood for 4 to 8 hours. Then they leave the blood and enter into the tissues and can live there for 3 to 4 days. If the body is exposed for serious infections, they live even shorter. The numbers of granulocytes in the blood depends on the release of mature granulocytes from the bone marrow and the body’s need for an increased number of granulocytes (i.e. during infection). The neutrophil granulocytes are very important in the fight against infections. If a bacterial infection occurs, the neutrophils travel to the infected area and neutralize the invading bacteria. In those cases, the total number of neutrophil granulocytes is high. The eosinophil granulocytes do not phagocytose and are more important in allergic reactions. The same is the case with the basophil granulocytes; they contain histamine and heparin and are also involved in allergic reactions.

Monocytes (another type of white blood cell) are produced by the bone marrow from hematopoietic stem cell precursors called monoblasts. Monocytes make up between 3 and 8% of the leukocytes in the blood [6], and circulate in the blood for about 1 to 3 days before moving into tissues throughout the body. Monocytes are, like the neutrophil granulocytes, effective phagocytes, and are responsible for phagocytosis of foreign subâ€ stances in the body. When the monocytes leave the blood barrier, they differentiate in the tissues and their size and characteristics change. These cells are named macrophages. Macrophages are responsible for protecting tissues from foreign substances but are also known to be the predominant cells involved in triggering atherosclerosis. Macrophages are cells that possess a large smooth nucleus, a large area of cytoplasm and many interâ€ nal vesicles for processing foreign material.

*Cells*	*Amount (Cell/µL)*
Leukocytes	4 500 – 11 000
Neutrophils	4 000 – 7 000
Lymphocytes	2 500 – 5 000
Monocytes	100 – 1 000
Eosinophils	0 – 500
Basophils	0 - 100

Table 2. Normal values of circulating blood cell levels. Rhoades, 2003.(5)

The acquired immune system

The second kind of protection is called adaptive (or active) immunity [6]. This type of immunity develops throughout our lives. Adaptive immunity involves the lymphocytes and develops from early childhood. Adults are exposed to diseases or are immunized against diseases through vaccination. The main cells involved in acquired immunity are the lymphocytes, and there are two kinds of them: B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes; both are capable of secreting a large variety of specialized molecules (antibodies and cytokines) to regulate the immune response. T lymphocytes can also be engaged in direct cell-on-cell warfare (Table 1). Lymphocytes start out in the bone marrow where they reside and mature into B cells. Lymphocytes can also leave and travel to the thymus gland and mature into T cells. B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes have separate functions: B lymphocytes are like the body's military intelligence system, seeking out their targets and organizing defenses, while T cells are like the soldiers, destroying the invaders that the intelligence system has identified [7].

C-Reactive Protein (CRP)

C-reactive protein (CRP) is an acute phase protein presented in the blood and rises in response to inflammation. Its physiological role is to bind to phosphocholine expressed on the surface of dead or dying cells to activate the complement system. The complement system is the name of a group of plasma proteins, which are produced by the liver, and is an important part of the innate immune system. The complement system has an important role in the fight against bacteria and virus infections.

Recent investigations suggest that physical activity reduce CRP levels. Higher levels of physical activity and cardio respiratory fitness are consistently associated with 6 to 35% lower CRP levels [8]. Longitudinal training studies have demonstrated reductions in CRP concentration from 16 to 41%, an effect that may be independent of baseline levels of CRP, body composition, and weight loss [8].

The mechanisms behind the role physical activity plays in reducing inflammation and suppressing CRP levels are not well defined [9]. Chronic physical activity is associated with reduced resting CRP levels due to multiple mechanisms including: decreased cytokine production by adipose tissue, skeletal muscles, endothelial and blood mononuclear cells, improved endothelial function and insulin sensitivity, and possibly an antioxidant effect [9]. A short-term increase in serum CRP has been observed after strenuous exercise [9]. This is due to an exercise-induced acute phase response, facilitated by the cytokine system, mainly through interleukin- 6 (IL-6). Exercise training may influence this response, whereas there is also a homeostatic, anti-inflammatory counter-acute phase response after strenuous exercise.

The most common infections in sports medicine are caused by bacteria or viruses. Infections are very common, particularly infections in the upper respiratory tract [10]. Asthma/airway hyper-responsiveness (AHR) is the most common chronic medical condition in endurance trained athletes (prevalence of about 8% in both summer and winter athletes) [11]. Inspiring polluted or cold air is considered a significant aetiological factor in some but not all sports people [11]. The symptoms of infections are healthy, which means that the body is reacting normally. The common cold is generally caused by virus infections and is self-healing and most of the times free of problems, but sometimes bacteria will follow and cause complications (e.g. ear infections). Mononucleosis (“kissing disease”) and throat infections are usually caused by various viruses. Infections in the heart muscle (myocarditis) can be due to both virus and bacteria and represent a problematic area within the field of sports medicine [12].

Cytokines

Cytokines are substances secreted by certain immune system cells that carry signals locally between cells, and thus have an effect on other cells. Cytokines are the signaling molecules used extensively in cellular communication. The term cytokine encompasses a large and diverse family of polypeptide regulators that are produced widely throughout the body by cells of diverse embryological origin. A pro-inflammatory cytokine is a cytokine which promotes systemic inflammation, while an anti-inflammatory cytokine refers to the property of a substance or treatment that reduces inflammation. TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-8 are some examples of pro-inflammatory cytokines. IL-6 and IL-10 belong to the anti-inflammatory category. IL-6 can be both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory.

Heavy physical activity produces a rapid transient increase in cytokine production and entails increases in both pro-inflammatory (IL-2, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8, TNFα) and anti-inflammatory (IL-1ra, IL-10) cytokines. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is the most studied cytokine associated with physical exercise [13]. Many studies have investigated the effects of different forms and intensities of exercise on its plasma concentration and tissue expression [14-16]. The effects of physical exercise seem to be mediated by intensity [15] as well as the duration of effort, the muscle mass involved and the individual’s physical fitness level [17].

Increases in IL-6 over 100 times above resting values have been found after exhaustive exercise such as marathon races, moderate exercise (60–65% VO2max) and after resistance exercise, may last for up to 72 h after the end of the exercise [18]. One explanation for the increase in IL-6 after exhaustive exercise is that IL-6 is produced by the contracting muscle and is released in large quantities into the circulation. Studies have shown that prolonged exercise may increase circulating neutrophils’ ability to produce reactive oxygen metabolites, but the release of IL-6 after exercise has been associated with neutrophil mobilization and priming of the oxidative activity [19]. Free radical damaging effects on cellular functions are for IL-6 seen as a key mediator of the exercise-induced immune changes [18].

Free radicals

Regular physical activity and exercise at moderate levels are important factors for disease prevention [21]. Strenuous exercise leads to the activation of several cell lines within the imâ€ mune system, such as neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages, which all are capable of producing ROS [22]. During resting conditions, the human body produces ROS to a level which is within the body’s capacity to produce antioxidants. During endurance exercise, there is a 15- to 20-fold increase in whole body oxygen consumption, and the oxygen uptake in the active muscles increases 100- to 200-fold [23]. This elevation in oxygen consumption is thought to result in the production of ROS at rates that exceed the body’s capacity to detoxify them.

Antioxidants.

An antioxidant is a chemical compound or a substance such as vitamin E, vitamin C, or beta carotene, thought to defend body cells from the destructive effects of oxidation. Antioxidants are important in the context of organic chemistry and biology: all living cells contains a complex systems of antioxidant compounds and enzymes, which prevent the cells by chemical damage due to oxidation.

Physical activity and antioxidant supplementation

A very important question in this context is whether exercise-induced oxidative stress is associated with an increased risk of diseases. The great disparities as to whether ROS production increases or decreases after physical exercise should be considered when comparing different studies of antioxidant supplementation and exercise-induced oxidative stress; likewise the differences in antioxidant dosages used, the biological potency of different forms of the same antioxidant and the different manufacturers’ products. The human body has an elaborate antioxidant system that depends on the endogenous production of antioxidant compounds like enzymes, as well as the dietary intake of antioxidant vitamins and minerals. Still, there is not enough knowledge at present as to whether the body’s natural antioxidant defense system is sufficient to counteract the induced increase of free radicals during physical exercise or if additional supplements are needed [24]. Until now, the majority of investigations address the effects of exercise on markers of oxidative stress, and not the occurrence of disease. However, most research points to a beneficial effect of regular moderate-to-vigorous physical activity on disease prevention [25] [24].

Effect of exercise on immunity

The J- curve

Although the consensus is lacking in some areas, there is sufficient agreement to make some conclusions about the effects of exercise on the immune system. Numerous publications before 1994 resulted in assumption that a J-shaped relationship [24] best described the relationship between infection sensitivity and exercise intensity. The hypothesis is based on cross-section analysis of a mixed cohort of marathon runners, sedentary men and women as well as longitudinal studies on athletes and non-athletes [26,27,28] that showed increased immunity with increased exercise training. However, one study [29] observed a lower risk for upper respiraâ€ tory tract infections (URTI) in over-trained compared with well-trained athletes. Previous infections, pathogen exposure, and other stressors apart from exercise may also influence immune response and therefore interpretations of the results of such studies need to be made with care. According to the J-shaped curve, moderate amounts of exercise may enhance immune function above sedentary levels, while excessive amounts of prolonged high intensity exercise may impair immune function [18] (Figure 4).

Figure 4. The risk of infection in relation to physical activity. Nieman et al.,1994.

The S-curve

With regard to induced infections in animals, the influence of any exercise intervention appears to be pathogen specific, and dependent on the species, age, and sex of the animals selected for study, and the type of exercise paradigm. Individuals exercising moderately may lower their risk of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) while those undergoing heavy exercise regimens may have higher than normal risk. When including elite athletes in the J-curve model, the curve is suggested to be S-shaped [28] (Figure 5). This hypothesis states that low and very high exercise loads increases the infection odds ratio, while moderate and high exercise loads decreases the infection odds ratio, but this needs to be verified by compiling data from a larger number of subjects [28].

Figure 5. S-shaped relationship between training load and infection rate. Malm et al., 2006.

The open window theory

The J-curve relationship has been established among scientists, coaches, and athletes. Howâ€ ever, the immunological mechanism behind the proposed increased vulnerability to upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) after strenuous physical exercise is not yet described [30]. The phenomenon is commonly referred to as the ‘‘open window’’ for pathogen entrance [31] (Figure 6). The “open window” theory means that there is an 'open window' of altered imâ€ munity (which may last between 3 and 72 hours), in which the risk of clinical infection after exercise is excessive [32, 33]. This means that running a marathon or simply engaging in a prolonged bout of running, increases your risk of contracting an upper-respiratory system infection. Fitch [34] reported that Summer Games athletes who undertake endurance training have a much higher prevalence of asthma compared to their counterparts that have little or no endurance training. Years of endurance training seems to incite airway injury and inâ€ flammation [34]. Such inflammation varies across sports and the mechanical changes and hydration within the airways, in combination with levels of noxious agents like airborne pollutions, irritants or allergens may all have an effect [34].

It is well known that exhausting exercise can result in excessive inflammatory reactions and immune suppression, leading to clinical consequences that slow healing and recovery from injury and/or increase your risk of disease and/or infection [18]. Comparing the immune reâ€ sponses to surgical trauma and stressful bouts of physical activity, there are several paralâ€ lels; activation of neutrophils and macrophages, which accumulate free radicals [21] [31], local release of proinflammatory cytokines [32], and activation of the complement, coagulaâ€ tion and fibrinolytic cascades [33]. Both physical and psychological stress have been regardâ€ ed as potent suppressors of the immune system [35], which leaves us with many unanswered questions about whether or not physical exercise is beneficial or harmful for the immune system [36].

One of the most studied aspects of exercise and the immune system is the changes in leukoâ€ cyte numbers in circulating blood [35-38]. The largest changes occur in the number of granuâ€ locytes (mainly neutrophils). The mechanisms that cause leukocytosis can be several: an increased release of leukocytes from bone marrow storage pools, a decreased margination of leukocytes onto vessel walls, a decreased extravasation of leukocytes from the vessels into tissues, or an increase in number of precursor cells in the marrow [6]. During exercise, the main source of circulatory neutrophils are primary (bone marrow) and secondary (spleen, lymph nodes, gut) lymphoid tissues, as well as marginated neutrophils from the endothelial wall of peripheral veins [39, 40]. Fry et al., [37] observed that neutrophil number increases proportionally with exercise intensity following interval running over a range of intensities.

Exercise intensity, duration and/or the fitness level of the individual may all play a role in regards to the degree of leukocytosis occurring [41-43]. One way to cure physical stress for the immune system is to increase the total number of leukocytes for fighting the infection and for normalizing the homeostasis. The argument that exercise induces an inflammation like response is also supported by the fact that the raised level of cytokines result in the inâ€ creased secretion of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), which induces the enhanceâ€ ment of systemic cortisol level. Monocytes and thrombocytes are responsible for the initiation of exercise induced acute phase reaction [43].

Physical activity – A stimulator and an inhibitor to the immune system

Primarily physical activity stimulates the immune system and strengthens the infection deâ€ fense. There are indications that untrained people who start exercising regularly get a proâ€ gressively stronger immune system and become less susceptible to infections [44]. Intensive endurance training or competition which last for at least one hour stimulates the immune system sharply in the beginning, but a few hours after exercise/competition, a weakened imâ€ mune system results [45]. This means that the immune system in the hours after hard exerâ€ cise/competition has a weakened ability to fight against bacteria and viruses and the susceptibility to infection is temporarily increased [46]. This effect is seen in both untrained and trained individuals. How long this period lasts for is partly dependent of the intensity and duration of the exercise, and is very individual. The “open period” can last from a few hours up to a day. If such a long-term activity session happens too frequently, it can cause prolonged susceptibility to infections and increased risk of complications if an infection is acquired. Planning of training/activity/competition and rest periods is therefore very important and should be done on an individual basis.

Summary

The body's immune system fights all that it perceives as a foreign body. The immune system is separated in two functional divisions: the innate immunity, referred to as the first line of defense, and acquired immunity, which produces a specific reaction and immunological memory to each infectious agent.

Free radicals are any atom with an unpaired electron. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are all free radicals that involve oxygen. ROS formation is a natural ongoing process that takes place in the body, while the antioxidant defense is on duty for collecting and neutralizing the excess production of oxygen radicals. Many sources of heat, stress, irradiation, inflamâ€ mation, and any increase in metabolism including exercise, injury, and the repair processes lead to increased production of ROS. An antioxidant is a chemical compound or a substance such as vitamin E, vitamin C, or beta carotene, thought to defend body cells from the destructive effects of oxidation. Antioxidants are important in the context of organic chemistry and biology: all living cells contain a complex systems of antioxidant compounds and enzymes, which prevent the cells death by chemical damages due to oxidation. A very important question in this context is whether exercise-induced oxidative stress is associated with an increased risk of disease. The great disparities as to whether ROS production increases or decreases after physical exercise should be considered when comparing different studies of antioxidant supplementation and exercise-induced oxidative stress; likewise the differences in antioxidant dosages used, the biological potency of different forms of the same antioxidant and the different manufacturers products. The main explanations for the inconâ€ sistencies as to the effect of antioxidant supplementation on oxidative stress seems to be due to the different assay techniques used to measure the ROS production, the exercise mode, and the fitness levels of participants. The J-curve theory describes that moderate exercise loads enhance immune function above sedentary levels, while excessive amounts of prolonged high intensity exercise may impair immune function. However, the immunological mechanism behind the proposed increased vulnerability to upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) after strenuous physical exercise is not yet described. This phenomenon is referred to as the ‘‘open window’’. The “open window” theory means that there is an 'open window' of altered immunity (which may last between 3 and 72 hours) in which the risk of clinical infection after exercise is excessive. When including elite athletes in the J-curve model, the curve is suggested to be S-shaped. This hypothesis states that low and very high exercise load increases the infection odds ratio, while moderate and high exercise loads decreases the infection odds ratio, but this needs to be verified by compiling data from a larger number of subjects.

Exercise has anti-inflammatory effects, which means that moderate amounts of exercise may enhance immune function above sedentary levels.

Physical activity is associated with reduced resting C-reactive protein (CRP) levels.
Heavy physical activity produces a rapid, transient increases in cytokine production and entails increases in both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines.
Physical exercise affects the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in leukocytes, which may induce muscle damage, decreased physical performance, muscular fatigue, and overtraining.
It is currently not known whether the body’s natural antioxidant defense system is sufficient to counteract the induced increase of ROS during physical exercise or if additional suppleâ€ ments are needed.
There are three main theories describing the effects of exercise on immunity: 1) the J-curve theory, 2) the “open window” theory and 3) the S-curve theory.

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